The Dictatorships That Emerged in Russia, Italy and Japan Revision Notes for HSC SSCE Modern History

The Dictatorships That Emerged in Russia, Italy and Japan

Introduction

The interwar period (1919-1939) saw the emergence of powerful dictatorships across the world. Following World War I, Europe experienced political instability, with revolutionary movements spreading across the continent. The global Great Depression from 1929 onwards created further economic chaos, making people more willing to support extremist political movements. This period witnessed the rise of three major dictatorships in Russia, Italy and Japan, each characterised by terror, totalitarianism, propaganda and the cult of personality surrounding their leaders.

Note

The aftermath of World War I created unprecedented political and economic instability across Europe and Asia. The traditional social order had been shattered by the war, leaving a power vacuum that would be filled by new, radical forms of government. The economic devastation and human cost of the war made populations more receptive to leaders who promised strength, order and national revival—even at the cost of democratic freedoms.

Russia: Stalin's totalitarian state

Stalin's rise to power

When Vladimir Lenin died in 1924, he did not endorse a successor, leaving the Bolshevik leadership to determine who would lead the Soviet Union. The two main contenders were Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin.

Trotsky's strengths:

Personal charisma and great oratory skills
Fierce intelligence and sharpness
Active role in the October Revolution of 1917
Key figure in the seizure of power

Stalin's strengths:

Genius for bureaucratic and organisational work behind the scenes
General Secretary of the Communist Party since 1922
Placed his supporters in key party positions
Appeared less radical than Trotsky

Stalin promoted the slogan "Socialism in one country", arguing that the Soviet Union should focus on building and strengthening itself at home rather than spreading revolution abroad. This approach seemed more practical and less threatening to many party members. Through careful political manoeuvring, Stalin marginalised Trotsky, who was expelled from the party in 1927, exiled to Central Asia, and later expelled from the Soviet Union entirely. Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico in 1940 by one of Stalin's agents.

Important

Stalin's victory over Trotsky was not inevitable. It resulted from masterful political manipulation rather than ideological superiority. Stalin's control of party appointments allowed him to place loyalists in key positions throughout the Soviet bureaucracy. By the time Trotsky and other leaders recognised the threat Stalin posed, it was too late—Stalin had already built an unassailable power base.

By 1927, Stalin held a dominant position in the Soviet government and party apparatus. Over the following years, he would reshape the regime and Soviet society according to his vision.

The cult of personality

Stalin developed an effective cult of personality to portray himself as Lenin's rightful successor. Key elements included:

Renaming Petrograd to Leningrad in Lenin's honour
Constructing a granite mausoleum in 1930 to house Lenin's mummified body
Ensuring loyalty from newer party members who owed their positions to Stalin
Removing and marginalising older Bolsheviks to create opportunities for his supporters

Note

Interestingly, Stalin cultivated an image as a remote dictator. Ordinary Soviet citizens often did not blame him for hardships in their lives, assuming that if Stalin knew about their problems, he would fix them. This protected his reputation even as conditions worsened—a phenomenon historians call the "cult of the benevolent tsar." People would say, "If only Stalin knew!" when facing injustice, not realising that Stalin himself was the source of their suffering.

Totalitarianism in the Soviet Union

Soviet society became increasingly "Stalinised" during this period. Historians describe the system Stalin established as totalitarian because of its ambitions for total control over all aspects of life. These ambitions were "far-reaching" even if not completely realised in practice.

Key terms:

Totalitarian: A system of government seeking complete control over all aspects of public and private life
Bolsheviks: The wing of the Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party, led by Lenin, that seized control of Russia in October 1917

Collectivisation of agriculture

From 1928 onwards, Stalin called for the collectivisation of agriculture to gain firm control over the food supply. This involved reorganising agriculture from a largely agrarian system of individual farms into large-scale, state-owned collective farms.

What collectivisation meant:

Independent small farms owned by individual farmers were replaced with large collective farms
Peasants would work like factory labourers, not on their own land
The state controlled agricultural production

Implementation and resistance:

In November 1929, Stalin demanded forced collectivisation. More prosperous peasants, labelled kulaks, were to be "eliminated as a class". Hundreds of thousands of people defined as kulaks were arrested and deported to Siberia.

Agricultural production plummeted due to peasant resistance. Ordinary farmers simply wanted to keep their land and be left alone. When these demands were not met, they resisted by refusing to produce or hand over their crops to the regime.

Important

Common misconception: Collectivisation was not simply an economic policy—it was a political weapon. Stalin used it to break the independence of the peasantry, who he viewed as a potential counter-revolutionary force. The "elimination" of kulaks was often arbitrary; anyone who resisted collectivisation could be labelled a kulak, regardless of their actual wealth. This created a climate of terror in rural areas.

By March 1930, Stalin temporarily halted the collectivisation drive due to the enormous disruptions it was causing. However, by the end of the year, he resumed with even more severe measures:

Food was declared state property
A 1932 law provided the death penalty for stealing food (even for starving peasants)
Peasants were allowed to keep only small private garden plots

The Terror Famine (1932-33):

The most tragic consequence of collectivisation was the Terror Famine in Ukraine, known as the "breadbasket of the Soviet Union". This was not a natural disaster but a human-made, political famine with political purposes.

As Ukrainian farmers resisted giving up their produce, Soviet troops seized grain even in areas experiencing poor harvests and hunger. Estimates suggest 5-7 million people starved in Ukraine during this period. Famine also struck other parts of the Soviet Union.

Note

The Soviet government responded with "the big lie"—simply denying the famine had occurred at all. Foreign reporters were kept away from affected areas by the NKVD (Soviet Secret Police). This systematic denial allowed the regime to continue its policies even as millions died. Western journalists who reported on the famine, like Gareth Jones, were dismissed as propagandists, while those who denied it, like Walter Duranty of the New York Times, were praised by the Soviet government.

Key terms:

Kulaks: More prosperous peasants targeted for elimination during collectivisation
Famine: Widespread scarcity of food caused by factors such as government policies
NKVD: Soviet Secret Police that controlled prisons, police, frontier guards and state security

The five-year plans

Alongside agricultural transformation, Stalin launched dramatic plans to industrialise the Soviet Union through five-year plans.

The First Five-Year Plan (October 1929-1932):

Aimed to industrialise the Soviet Union virtually overnight
Sought to force rapid progress through sheer force of will
Emphasised the power of the leader, party and committed workers to overcome physical obstacles
This emphasis on willpower diverged from classical Marxism

Industry expanded at a phenomenal rate, though at enormous human cost. The government set specific production targets (quotas or norms) that demanded dramatic increases.

Note

The first five-year plan was completed in 1932, far ahead of schedule. The second five-year plan (1933-1937) was also completed early. However, these "successes" came with severe human costs. Workers faced brutal conditions, and those who failed to meet quotas could be accused of sabotage. The regime prioritised heavy industry over consumer goods, meaning that even as steel production soared, ordinary citizens struggled to find basic necessities.

Key term:

Marxism: Political and economic theories developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that formed the basis of communism

The Great Terror and Purges (1936-1938)

Between 1936 and 1938, the Soviet Union experienced the Great Terror, with Stalin overseeing the elimination of suspected or potential resistance.

The scale of terror:

For the entire Stalinist era (1929-1953), historians estimate around 20 million deaths
During the Great Purge (1936-1938), approximately 600,000 people were executed
The purges began with the mysterious murder of Stalin's potential rival Sergei Kirov in December 1934

Important

The true scale of the terror: These numbers represent only those executed or who died in camps. They don't include the millions more who were imprisoned, exiled, or whose lives were destroyed by the terror. Entire families could be punished for one member's alleged crimes. Children of "enemies of the people" were often sent to orphanages and given new identities, severing them from their families forever.

Targets of the purges:

Party officials
Old Bolsheviks who had been with the Communist Party from the beginning
Ordinary citizens
Military officers

The show trials:

Three successive public trials (1936, 1937 and 1938) saw prominent communists accused of plotting against Stalin in wave after wave of terror. These were dramatic propaganda events designed to justify the purges.

The military purge:

In September 1937, Stalin purged tens of thousands of officers, including nine of the 10 Soviet generals and the Civil War hero General Tukhachevsky. This left the Soviet Union ill-prepared for World War II.

Note

The system of terror:

The secret police devised an elaborate structure to make terror work systematically:

Quotas for arrests were sent to police in different regions
Denunciations led to the "knock on the door in the middle of the night"
Terror was turned into a "scientific system"

This bureaucratisation of terror meant that NKVD officers had to meet arrest quotas like factory workers meeting production targets. This created a perverse incentive to arrest innocent people simply to fulfil quotas.

Purpose of the terror:

Stalin pursued specific goals through the terror:

Consolidating his power by placing supporters in key positions
Transforming the party structure (by the 1939 Party Congress, most delegates from the 1934 congress had been purged and replaced)
Effecting massive social change throughout the country

Key term:

Purges: The Communist Party removing members considered corrupt, inefficient or "undesirable"

The Gulag system

The gulag was an extensive prison and labour camp system that epitomised Stalinist terror.

Statistics:

By the end of the 1930s: approximately 1.5 million prisoners
By the late 1940s and early 1950s: 2-2.5 million prisoners
According to some historians, the gulag accounted for 12-15% of the Soviet economy in the 1930s

Important

Reality vs propaganda:

Soviet propaganda claimed the camps were for "rehabilitation" and "re-educational, corrective labour". The reality was far harsher, with endemic mortality and mistreatment. The gulag was only part of a much larger system of forced labour within the Soviet Union.

Prisoners faced brutal conditions: inadequate food, harsh weather, backbreaking labour, and arbitrary violence. Many camps were located in remote areas of Siberia where temperatures could drop to -50°C. Survival depended on luck, connections, and the ability to secure slightly better work assignments.

Italy: The rise of fascism

The emergence of fascism

As World War I concluded, the dislocations and traumas of the post-war period led to the creation of a new ideology: fascism. This ideology first emerged in Italy under Benito Mussolini and later spread across Europe.

Key characteristics of fascism:

Basic principles:

Authoritarian
State is more important than the individual
Charismatic leader
Action-oriented party

Political features:

Nationalist
One-party rule
Supreme leader

Cultural features:

Censorship
Indoctrination
Secret police

Social features:

Supported the middle class, industrialists and the military

Note

What fascists opposed:

Socialism and communism
Parliamentary government and democracy
Liberal ideas (seen as "weak")

What fascists championed:

Order and the power of a centralised state
Brutal heroism
Dynamic revolution and violence

Fascism presented itself as a "third way" between capitalism and communism, though in practice it allied with capitalist interests and violently suppressed socialist movements. Its appeal lay in promising order and national greatness during a time of chaos and humiliation.

Benito Mussolini's rise to power

Mussolini (1883-1945) began his political career as a socialist, like his father. He believed World War I could be an opportunity for revolution and change. After the war, Mussolini used Italy's post-war turmoil to launch his new political movement, which combined:

Nationalism (revealed as a potent force in WWI)
Revolutionary ideas
Some relics from his socialist career

The fascist movement presented itself as protection against communist revolution, winning support from conservative classes, the aristocracy and established elites.

Mussolini's appearance and style:

Despite being somewhat short (five feet six inches), Mussolini developed a commanding presence. He would speak with his chin thrust upward to appear taller when viewed from below. His characteristic oratory and bombastic style produced results, as seen in the cheering crowds he addressed.

Note

Mussolini was a master of image-making and propaganda. He carefully cultivated his public persona, often appearing shirtless to project strength and virility, or photographed while flying planes, driving race cars, or performing other daring activities. He understood that in the modern age of mass media, appearance and spectacle could be as important as actual policy. This focus on the leader's image became a defining feature of fascist regimes.

The Blackshirts and the March on Rome

The fascist movement officially began in Milan in March 1919. It took its name from combat squads called the Fasci di Combattimento, which adopted black shirts as part of their uniforms.

Blackshirt tactics:

Used the classical Roman salute (outstretched right arm)
Brutalised and murdered political opponents in Italian streets
Broke up strikes, claiming to restore order

Important

The nature of fascist violence: The Blackshirts operated with near impunity, often with the tacit approval of local police and authorities who feared communist revolution more than fascist violence. This paramilitary violence was not random—it was a deliberate strategy to terrorise opposition, demonstrate fascist strength, and create a sense of crisis that only Mussolini could resolve. The violence also served to bind fascist squads together through shared criminal acts.

The March on Rome (October 1922):

In autumn 1922, Fascists claimed a communist takeover was imminent and organised their squads into a mass demonstration on Rome. They announced that if not given power, they would take it by force.

The reality behind the myth:

Mussolini deliberately inflated the myth of the March on Rome:

Claimed 300,000 fascists on horseback participated
Reality: Mussolini and most Black-Shirted followers travelled from Milan to Rome by train
King Victor Emmanuel III refused to order martial law against the Fascists
Mussolini achieved power through political manoeuvring rather than revolutionary violence

Note

The March on Rome became a founding myth of fascism, portrayed as a dramatic revolutionary seizure of power. In reality, Mussolini was invited to form a government by the King, who feared civil war and believed he could control Mussolini. The "march" itself was more of a ragged parade than a military operation. Mussolini even waited in Milan until he was sure he would be appointed Prime Minister before travelling to Rome—by sleeping car on a train, not at the head of a revolutionary army.

Consolidation of power

Mussolini and his followers promised order, discipline and dynamism. By consolidating power in slow stages, Mussolini became a strong dictator by 1929 (around the same time Stalin secured full power in the Soviet Union).

Key steps in consolidation:

Made Blackshirt squads a government body (essentially the militia)
1926: Formed the OVRA secret police
1926: Suspended Italian elections
Established government by decree
1929: Signed the Lateran Treaties with the Vatican, reconciling the Catholic Church with the regime

Important

The Lateran Treaties were crucial to Mussolini's consolidation of power. By resolving the long-standing conflict between the Italian state and the Catholic Church (dating back to Italian unification in 1870), Mussolini gained the support—or at least the acquiescence—of the Church and millions of devout Catholics. The Church received financial compensation, recognition of Vatican City as an independent state, and privileged status in Italy. In return, the Church withdrew from political opposition to the fascist regime.

Fascist ideology and symbols:

The fascist slogan captured their core values: "Credere, obbedire, combattere!" ("Believe, obey and fight!"). These were the cardinal virtues of the movement.

Key features:

Vigorous action and violence at the heart of ideology
Authority of the state personified in the leader (Il Duce)
Claimed to inaugurate a new world era
March on Rome designated as "year zero" of a new fascist calendar
Nostalgia for ancient Rome (Romanita - revival of Roman glories)
Giant public works projects
Regimentation of youth (wearing black neckerchiefs)

Foreign policy

Mussolini took a firm line in foreign affairs. After Italy's disappointment with its limited territorial gains from WWI, he aimed to:

Put Italy back on the map
Make the Mediterranean an Italian lake
Build a second Roman Empire
Ensure Europe took him seriously

He had territorial ambitions toward weaker Balkan neighbours such as Albania and Greece.

Note

Mussolini's foreign policy ambitions often exceeded Italy's actual capabilities. While he spoke grandly of creating a new Roman Empire, Italy's economy and military were relatively weak compared to other major powers. His aggressive posturing was partly designed to distract from domestic problems and rally Italians around a nationalist cause. This gap between fascist rhetoric and reality would become increasingly apparent as World War II progressed.

Influence of fascism

Mussolini's fascist-style image of the "strong man" influenced dictatorships worldwide, especially in Central and Eastern Europe. After an initial burst of democratic enthusiasm following WWI, dictatorships proliferated. The appeal of fascism grew stronger with the Great Depression from 1929.

By 1939, three-fifths of European countries were run by authoritarian governments. The democratic post-war wave had given way to a surging tide of dictatorships. Italian Fascism also inspired the German Nazis, who built an even stronger, more efficient and more violent regime.

Important

The spread of authoritarianism: The success of fascism in Italy demonstrated that democracy could be overthrown and replaced with authoritarian rule, even in a developed European nation. This encouraged similar movements across Europe. Countries like Hungary, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Spain all developed authoritarian or fascist-style regimes in the interwar period. The Great Depression further discredited liberal democracy and capitalism, making authoritarian alternatives more appealing to populations desperate for stability and economic recovery.

Japan: Militarism and expansionism

Economic context and the 1920s

During World War I, Japan's economy remained strong as allies relied on Japanese resources. Japan consolidated its political position in East Asia while Europeans were preoccupied with the war.

The influence of the zaibatsu:

The zaibatsu (Japanese business conglomerates) increased their influence on Japanese politics by making substantial financial contributions to political parties. They wanted to expand international trade for their own interests.

This coincided with Japan limiting its navy size through agreements with Great Britain and the United States.

Growing tensions:

Japanese economic prosperity in the 1920s began declining as rural workers started favouring a socialist government in response to urban dwellers' prosperity. Western influence led to the granting of voting rights to the Japanese people, meaning more rural workers supported socialist candidates in Parliament.

Key term:

Zaibatsu: "Financial clique"; Japanese business conglomerates influential until the end of World War II

Note

The 1920s in Japan were a period of relative democracy and internationalism, sometimes called "Taishō Democracy" (after Emperor Taishō). However, this democratic period was fragile. The military maintained considerable autonomy from civilian government control, and traditional conservative forces resented Western influence and democratic reforms. When economic crisis hit, these democratic institutions proved unable to withstand pressure from militarist factions.

Impact of the Great Depression

For most of the 1920s, Japanese leaders strongly supported economic liberalism. However, their efforts to integrate Japan's economy into a liberal world order were frustrated by the Great Depression.

Japanese grievances:

Western countries placed barriers on Japanese trade to protect their colonial markets. Japan believed:

The structure of international peace through the League of Nations favoured Western nations
The West controlled the world's resources unfairly
Western countries' anti-Asian immigration legislation in the 1920s was discriminatory

Important

Japanese resentment toward the West had deep roots. Despite being one of the victorious powers in WWI, Japan was treated as a second-class nation at the Paris Peace Conference. Its proposal for a racial equality clause in the League of Nations Covenant was rejected by Western powers, particularly the United States, Britain, and Australia. Immigration laws in these countries specifically targeted Japanese and other Asian immigrants. These humiliations, combined with economic discrimination, fuelled Japanese nationalism and militarism.

Rise of militarism

Unemployed Japanese people looked to the military's strength to address economic problems, as the civilian government appeared weak. The Japanese military argued that Japan needed to launch campaigns abroad to win new colonies and control industry for Japan's economic benefit. This echoed key features of dictatorships emerging elsewhere during this period.

The Manchurian Crisis (1931)

Strong Japanese nationalist and militarist elements became obvious during the Manchurian crisis at the end of 1931.

Background:

Manchuria was part of China, but Japan had made huge investments in the territory and effectively controlled the South Manchurian Railway and other industrial undertakings. Power in Manchuria was wielded by the Japanese army, which was not always firmly controlled by the government in Tokyo.

The Kwantung Army:

Officers of the General Staff demanded big increases in the army budget to protect Japan's position in Manchuria by increasing the garrison size. The civil government, whose policy was cooperation with China, refused the request and even cut military spending. This irritated officers of the Kwantung Army (the largest and most prestigious command of the Imperial Japanese Army).

Key term:

Kwantung Army: The largest and most prestigious command of the Imperial Japanese Army

The Mukden Incident (September 1931):

In September 1931, the Kwantung Army acted on its own initiative to achieve occupation of Manchuria. Using alleged sabotage of the South Manchurian Railway as justification, the Kwantung Army:

Seized the city of Mukden (the Mukden Incident)
By early 1932, occupied the whole of Manchuria

Important

Military insubordination: The Manchurian crisis revealed a crucial weakness in Japan's government structure—the military could act independently of civilian control. The Kwantung Army staged the railway "sabotage" itself (a false flag operation) and then used it as a pretext for invasion. The civilian government in Tokyo was presented with a fait accompli. This pattern of military insubordination and expansion would repeat throughout the 1930s, ultimately leading Japan into full-scale war with China and the Pacific War.

International response:

China appealed to the League of Nations, which sent a commission of enquiry. The report:

Acknowledged China's sovereign rights over the area
Recognised Japan's special interests
Condemned Japan's aggression
Demanded Japan give up the territory and withdraw its forces

Japan's response:

Japan gave notice of its intended withdrawal from the League of Nations and set up its own puppet government in Manchuria under Pu Yi (China's last Emperor, deposed in 1912). Manchuria, now called Manchukuo, became effectively part of the Japanese Empire.

Consequences of the Manchurian Crisis

The Manchurian crisis marked:

A significant stage in the decline of the League of Nations in the face of determined aggression
A major step leading to the establishment of powerful dictatorships in Europe and worldwide

Growth of nationalism in Japan:

The events signalled an upsurge in fundamentalist nationalism in Japan and the growth of right-wing groups demanding a stronger voice internationally. Although not as radical as European fascist elements, Japan witnessed:

Growth in assassinations
Increased propaganda
Intimidation tactics
Dismantling of the Japanese party government
End of international liberalism

Note

Throughout the 1930s, Japanese politics was marked by increasing political violence. Right-wing military officers and ultra-nationalist groups assassinated several moderate politicians and business leaders who favoured cooperation with the West. These assassinations, including the murder of two Prime Ministers, intimidated moderates and shifted political discourse toward militarism and expansion. By the mid-1930s, the military effectively controlled Japanese foreign policy.

Formation of the Axis Powers

November 1936: Japan and Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact (Italy signed in 1936)

1940: The Tripartite Pact was signed by Japan, Germany and Italy, with Japan recognised as the leader of a new order in Asia

From this date onwards, Japan, Italy and Germany became formally known as the Axis powers.

Summary

Key Points to Remember:

The interwar period saw the rise of three major dictatorships in Russia, Italy and Japan, each characterised by terror, totalitarianism, propaganda and cult of personality.
Stalin consolidated power in the Soviet Union through collectivisation, five-year plans, the Great Terror and the gulag system, resulting in millions of deaths but transforming the USSR into an industrial power.
Mussolini created fascism in Italy, rising to power through the March on Rome in 1922 and consolidating control through the Blackshirts, secret police and an alliance with the Catholic Church.
Japan's militarism grew in response to the Great Depression and Western discrimination, leading to the invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and eventual formation of the Axis powers with Germany and Italy.
By 1939, three-fifths of European countries were run by authoritarian governments, as democracy appeared incapable of dealing with economic crises and political instability.

The Common Thread:

All three dictatorships emerged from similar conditions: economic crisis, political instability, nationalist resentment, and the apparent failure of liberal democracy to address pressing problems. They offered simple solutions and strong leadership in exchange for political freedoms, and millions of people accepted this bargain. The consequences would prove catastrophic, leading directly to World War II and unimaginable human suffering.

The Dictatorships That Emerged in Russia, Italy and Japan (HSC SSCE Modern History): Revision Notes