Health (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
📚Revision Notes
Health
Health is a contested concept that means different things to different people. Understanding health requires examining both professional definitions used by medical experts and lay definitions held by ordinary people. These definitions reflect broader social attitudes and demonstrate how health is socially constructed.
Professional definitions of health
The medical profession's approach to defining health has evolved significantly over time, moving from narrow medical models to more comprehensive understandings of what it means to be healthy.
Negative versus positive definitions
Mildred Blaxter (2010) identified two distinct approaches to defining health. The medical profession traditionally uses negative definitions, viewing health simply as 'the absence of disease'. This approach focuses on what is wrong with a person rather than what constitutes wellness.
In contrast, positive definitions emphasise well-being and capabilities rather than just the absence of illness. This shift represents a more holistic understanding of what it means to be healthy.
Note
The evolution from negative to positive definitions reflects broader changes in medical thinking, moving away from a purely biomedical model towards more comprehensive approaches to health and wellbeing.
WHO definition of 1948
The World Health Organisation (WHO) introduced a groundbreaking positive definition in 1948:
Important
WHO 1948 Definition:
"(Health is) a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."
This definition was revolutionary because it:
- Moved beyond simply defining health as the absence of disease
- Recognised three interconnected dimensions: physical, mental, and social well-being
- Established health as a positive state rather than just the absence of problems
Criticisms of the WHO definition
Despite its influence, the WHO's 1948 definition faces several criticisms:
Note
Key Criticisms Include:
- Vagueness: Terms like 'complete well-being' are difficult to define precisely
- Measurement difficulties: How do we measure 'social well-being'?
- Unrealistic standards: Giddens and Sutton (2013) suggest it may be 'too utopian to be helpful'
- Practical limitations: The definition provides little guidance for healthcare practice
WHO revised definition of 1984
Recognising these limitations, the WHO developed a more practical definition in 1984:
Important
WHO 1984 Revised Definition:
"[Health is] the extent to which an individual or group is able, on the one hand, to realise aspirations and satisfy needs; and on the other hand, to change or cope with the environment. Health is, therefore, seen as a resource for everyday life, not the objective for living; it is a positive concept emphasising social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."
This holistic definition represents health as:
- A resource for living rather than a goal in itself
- The ability to adapt and cope with challenges
- A combination of personal, social, and physical resources
- Connected to individual growth and meeting basic needs
Lay definitions of health
Understanding how ordinary people define health provides crucial insights into the lived experience of health and illness, revealing the gap between medical and everyday understandings.
Understanding lay perspectives
Lay definitions are the everyday understandings of health held by non-medical professionals. These definitions are highly subjective and experiential, shaped by personal circumstances, culture, and social background.
Example
Examples of Lay Definitions:
People define health in various personal ways:
- "When I feel physically fit and don't have a cold, flu or sore throat"
- "When, despite my arthritis, I can still get out and about to the shops"
- "Having enough energy to do the housework and look after kids"
- "When I don't need to see the doctor"
- "When I have passed my annual health check confirming fit to fly"
- "When I'm not overweight and look good"
Functional versus experiential definitions
Blaxter (2010) distinguished between two types of lay definitions:
Note
Two Types of Lay Definitions:
- Functional definitions: Focus on the ability to perform daily tasks and roles
- Experiential definitions: Based on how a person feels and their subjective experience of wellness
The lay examples shown demonstrate both types, with some people defining health through their ability to work or care for others (functional) and others through feelings of fitness or absence of symptoms (experiential).
Social construction of health
The concept of health is not fixed or universal but is shaped by social forces, cultural values, and historical context. This understanding challenges the idea that health has a single, objective meaning.
How health definitions change
The interactionist perspective explains that lay definitions reflect individual experiences shaped by socialisation, culture, and identity. This demonstrates that health is socially constructed - its meaning is created through social processes rather than being fixed or universal.
Important
Historical Examples of Changing Health Definitions:
- Until the 1960s, doctors in the UK attempted to 'cure' homosexuality using aversion therapy in psychiatric hospitals
- Homosexuality is no longer considered a health issue, showing how social attitudes reshape medical definitions
- Malingering (faking illness) becomes a concern for governments when health treatment is expensive, influencing how illness is regulated and controlled
Recognition and implications
Understanding health as socially constructed reveals that:
- Definitions vary between cultures and historical periods
- Power relationships influence which definitions become dominant
- Social policy around health reflects prevailing attitudes and economic concerns
- What counts as 'healthy' or 'sick' can change as society changes
Key sociologists and contemporary applications
Contemporary sociological research continues to demonstrate the social nature of health, showing how broader social structures and relationships influence individual and community health outcomes.
Research on social factors
Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett (2010) demonstrated how health is influenced by social factors including:
Note
Key Social Factors Affecting Health:
- Degree of inequality in societies
- Strong communities and social support networks
- Friendship networks and social connections
Their research shows that health outcomes are not just individual matters but are shaped by broader social structures and relationships.
Contemporary relevance
Since its introduction in the 1940s, the WHO's definition of health has remained widely quoted and frequently used. This demonstrates that whilst imperfect, it retains usefulness and timeless quality for understanding health in contemporary society.
The enduring influence of the WHO definition suggests that positive, holistic approaches to health continue to resonate with both professionals and the public, despite ongoing debates about precise meanings and measurements.
Summary
Key Points to Remember:
- Health is a contested concept with different meanings for medical professionals and ordinary people
- WHO's 1948 definition established health as complete physical, mental and social well-being, moving beyond just absence of disease
- Lay definitions are subjective and experiential, shaped by personal circumstances and social background
- Health is socially constructed - its meaning changes over time and varies between cultures, as shown by historical examples like attitudes towards homosexuality
- Social factors like inequality and community networks significantly influence health outcomes according to contemporary research