29.3.1 Strengths and weaknesses of international agreements: Rio, Kyoto, Copenhagen, Paris and the UK

Stockholm 1972 - UN Conference on the Human Environment

Strengths:

• Early Scientific Focus: The Stockholm Conference was the first major international meeting to address environmental issues based on scientific evidence, marking a significant step towards recognizing the global nature of environmental challenges.
• Key Principles Established: The conference established foundational principles, such as safeguarding natural resources and ensuring that pollution does not exceed the environment's capacity to clean itself. These principles laid the groundwork for future environmental governance.
• Recognition of Developing Countries' Needs: It acknowledged the need for financial assistance to help developing countries establish environmental safeguards, emphasizing the need for global equity in environmental protection.

Weaknesses:

• Lack of Binding Commitments: The conference did not result in any binding international law or commitments, limiting its immediate impact on global environmental policy.
• Separation of Science and Politics: At this stage, science and politics were still largely separate, with no integrated bodies like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to bridge the gap between scientific research and policy-making.
• Independent Rather Than Collective Action: The aims of the conference were more focused on national efforts rather than collective international action, which limited the potential for coordinated global responses.

Montreal Protocol 1989

Strengths:

• Precautionary Principle: The protocol adopted the precautionary principle, agreeing to take action even when scientific evidence was not entirely conclusive, which was a significant step forward in environmental policy.
• Widespread Ratification: With 197 states ratifying the protocol, it achieved near-universal participation, demonstrating strong global commitment.
• Cost-Effective Measures: The measures under the Montreal Protocol, such as banning carbon fibre composites, were less costly to states' economic interests and were perceived as sharing the burden of environmental protection more equitably.

Weaknesses:

• Non-CO2 Emissions Focus: While the protocol effectively addressed non-CO2 emissions, its scope was limited, and it did not address the broader issue of CO2 emissions, which are the primary driver of climate change.

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Rio Earth Summit 1992

Strengths:

• Foundation of the UNFCCC: The Rio Earth Summit led to the creation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which became the main forum for international climate negotiations.
• Broad Participation: The summit was attended by 172 states, reflecting a strong global consensus on the need for collective action on environmental issues.
• Establishing Collective Action: The summit locked states into a process of annual negotiations, recognizing that global environmental problems require long-term, collective efforts.

Weaknesses:

• Lack of Specific Policies: While the summit succeeded in establishing a framework for future action, it did not result in specific, actionable policies, limiting its immediate impact.
• Continued Division Between Developed and Developing Countries: The summit highlighted the ongoing divide between developed and developing nations regarding responsibility and capacity to address environmental issues.

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Kyoto COP 1997

Strengths:

• Legally Binding Targets: The Kyoto Protocol established the first legally binding targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, focusing on developed states, which was a significant milestone in international climate policy.
• Introduction of Carbon Credit Scheme: The protocol introduced market-based mechanisms, such as carbon credits, to incentivize emission reductions, which became a key tool in global climate policy.

Weaknesses:

• Limited Participation: Key polluters, including the United States, China, and Russia, either withdrew or did not fully participate, severely limiting the protocol's effectiveness.
• Developed vs. Developing World Clash: The exclusion of major developing countries like China and India from binding targets highlighted the unresolved tension between the responsibilities of developed and developing nations.
• Delayed Implementation: The protocol took years to come into force (in 2005) and had an expiry date of 2012, which led to a limited timeframe for achieving significant emission reductions.

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Copenhagen COP 2009

Strengths:

• Increased Global Attention: The Copenhagen summit took place at a time of heightened global awareness of climate change, with significant media coverage and public engagement.
• Agreement on Temperature Limits: The conference succeeded in getting major emitters, including China and India, to agree to limit global temperature rises to 2°C, marking their first commitment to emission reductions.

Weaknesses:

• No Legally Binding Targets: Despite high expectations, the summit failed to produce a legally binding agreement, weakening its potential impact.
• Division Between Developed and Developing Countries: The conference revealed deep divisions between developed and developing nations, particularly on issues of responsibility, financing, and equity.
• Emergence of Negotiating Blocs: The emergence of blocs like the G7 and BASIC (Brazil, South Africa, India, and China) complicated negotiations and highlighted the difficulties in achieving consensus among diverse groups with differing interests.

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Paris COP 2015

Strengths:

• Legally Binding Targets for All States: The Paris Agreement marked a significant achievement by securing legally binding commitments from all participating states, including major emitters like the US, China, and India.
• Flexibility Through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): States set their own targets (NDCs), allowing for flexibility in how they achieve emission reductions while still contributing to the global effort.
• Ambitious Collective Goals: The agreement set the ambitious goal of keeping global temperature increases "well below" 2°C, with efforts to limit it to 1.5°C.
• Financial Support for Developing Countries: A $100 billion fund was established to help developing countries respond to climate change, addressing the equity concerns raised in previous summits.

Weaknesses:

• Voluntary Nature of NDCs: Although the targets are legally binding, the NDCs are self-determined and voluntary, which means that the ambition and effectiveness of the agreement depend on the political will of individual states.
• Withdrawal of Key States: The US withdrawal from the Paris Agreement under President Trump in 2017 weakened global efforts and demonstrated the fragility of international commitments.
• Challenges in Enforcement: The lack of strong enforcement mechanisms means that states can potentially fail to meet their targets without facing significant consequences.

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Katowice COP 2018

Strengths:

• Operationalization of the Paris Agreement: The Katowice summit agreed on a common rulebook to make the Paris Agreement operational by 2020, including rules for monitoring and reporting emissions reductions.
• Broad Participation: 196 states agreed to the rulebook, demonstrating widespread support for the Paris Agreement and its implementation.

Weaknesses:

• Blocking of Key Resolutions: The US, Russia, and Saudi Arabia blocked a resolution that welcomed the IPCC's most recent report, highlighting ongoing challenges in achieving consensus on climate science and policy.
• Continued Political Resistance: The blocking of resolutions and the lack of full consensus on critical issues underscore the difficulties in maintaining momentum and commitment to climate action among all states.

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UK COP26 2021

Strengths:

• Progress on Adaptation: COP26 emphasized the importance of adaptation to climate change, recognizing that addressing the impacts already occurring is as crucial as reducing emissions. Technical support was agreed upon to help countries address loss and damage related to climate change.
• Increased Financial Support: Governments acknowledged the need for greater financial support for developing countries, with a renewed focus on fulfilling the $100 billion annual pledge made in the Paris Agreement.
• Acceleration of Emission Reductions: There was a collective agreement to explore ways to accelerate emission reductions, particularly through the deployment of renewable energy.
• Finalization of Paris Agreement Guidelines: The summit finalized the guidelines for implementing the Paris Agreement, providing clarity on the operational aspects of the agreement.

Weaknesses:

• Shortfall in Meeting the 1.5°C Goal: Despite the achievements of COP26, the UN Chief pointed out that the world is still far from meeting the goal of limiting temperature rises to 1.5°C. This underscores the ongoing gap between ambition and action.
• Continued Political and Economic Divisions: The summit highlighted persistent divisions, particularly between developed and developing countries, over issues like financial support, emission reductions, and responsibility for historical emissions.

Strengths	Weaknesses
The gap between developing and developed states is being bridged, making cooperation more feasible.	No real change has been achieved, and climate conditions are worsening, e.g., increasing sea levels.
The creation of the IPCC allows unbiased scientific research, respected worldwide, indicating the strong need for change.	Politics is rushing to keep up with science but cannot.
They provide a space for nations to cooperate and come up with a united approach, beneficial in the long term.	Emissions are still increasing as there is no sustainable alternative as good as what we have.
Increase in legally binding targets has encouraged greater participation from key polluters, e.g., Russia and China.	Legally binding targets cannot be enforced and are ignored by many states, e.g., Russia vetoing the IPCC report to hide their emissions.
	Developing countries rely on their industry for their economy and are not yet willing to sacrifice that to better the climate.
	The USA pulled out of the Paris Agreement in 2017 when Trump launched his 'America First' policy, claiming the Paris Agreement would cost the USA $3 trillion and 6.5 million jobs.