The precepts

Synderesis

Reason is an essential capability of the human soul, and synderesis is the inherent habit or faculty of reason that uncovers the fundamental 'first principles' of God's natural moral law.

Through synderesis, we derive the primary precepts, which include:

1. Worshipping God
2. Living in an orderly society
3. Reproducing
4. Educating
5. Protecting and preserving human life
6. Defending the innocent.

These primary precepts reflect our natural inclinations towards the good, as designed by God.

Human reason translates these natural orientations into ethical principles, and all humans are born with the innate ability to understand them.

Secondary Precepts

Aquinas explains that natural law comprises both general precepts known to all and more specific precepts derived from the first principles.

Conscientia: The application of primary precepts to specific situations or actions.

While primary precepts do not explicitly address euthanasia, reason allows us to apply the precept of preserving human life to conclude that euthanasia is wrong. This judgment forms a secondary precept.

Interior and exterior acts

Exterior act: a physical action occurring outside the mind.

Interior act: the intention behind the action, occurring within the mind.

The essence of natural law ethics is to identify and act according to the telos of our nature, thereby glorifying God. This cannot be achieved without the right intention. A good exterior act without a good interior act does not glorify God, as it lacks the intention to fulfill our God-given telos.

Strengths of the precepts

• The primary precepts are found in the morality of all societies. For example, not killing for no reason and rules about stealing are universal.
• Natural law is available to everyone, everyone has the ability to discover the primary precepts as we are all born with the ability to know and apply them.
• Today's society has abandoned traditional moral principles which makes the need for primary precepts and guidance even more important.

Weaknesses of the precepts

• If humans were born with the ability to discover the primary precepts there would be a lot more moral agreement than there is.
• Social conditional influences and dictates our moral views as opposed to an innate sense of God-given purpose.
• Karl Barth: It is dangerous to rely on human reason to know God or what he wants from us as our reason has become corrupted by the fall. Whatever humans discover through reason is not divine and is therefore idolatry.
• The primary precepts are outdated and used to perpetuate what was the "norm" in society at the of Aquinas.
• Aquinas' theory is a response to the socio-economic conditions at the time, whilst at the time it was essential for children to be born under parents as mothers often relied financially on their husbands, times have changed.
• The precepts are inflexible and prevent essential progress from being made.

The doctrine of the double effect

💡A single action can produce both a good effect and a bad effect, which can sometimes be justified if the good effect is intended while the bad effect is not.

Aquinas argues that such actions are permissible when the negative outcome is unintended and merely incidental.

✔️ Aquinas illustrates this with the example of self-defense. When defending oneself, the action results in two effects: saving one's life and killing the aggressor. While killing violates the primary precept of preserving human life, it can be justified if it is an unintended consequence of an action aimed at self-preservation.

Modern Catholicism outlines four conditions for justifying actions under the principle of double effect:

7. Intentionality Condition: The good effect must be intended, and the bad effect must be incidental. For example, in self-defense, intending to save one's life justifies the incidental killing of the attacker.
8. Proportionality Condition: The good effect must be proportionate to the bad effect. Saving one's life must be equivalent to the harm done to the attacker, and excessive force is not permissible.
9. Means-End Condition: The good and bad effects must occur simultaneously. Using a bad effect to achieve a good outcome is not allowed.
10. Nature of the Act Condition: The action must be morally good, indifferent, or neutral. Acts like lying or killing an innocent person are never justifiable, though an attacker is not considered innocent.

Biblical Alignment and Criticisms

Support for the Double Effect:

• The principle of double effect harmonizes with Christian ethics by emphasizing the importance of moral intention alongside adherence to moral law.
• Jesus' teachings, such as those in the Sermon on the Mount, stress not just rule-following but also possessing the right moral intentions.
• This principle clarifies that while good intentions are crucial, they do not justify blatant violations of the law.
• Adds flexibility to the rigid biblical law.

Criticism of the Double Effect:

• Some theologians argue that the principle of double effect is unbiblical, as God's commandments are presented as absolute and not contingent on intentions.
• The distinction between intended and merely foreseen effects lacks moral significance.
• If negative outcomes are foreseeable, they cannot be justified by claiming they were incidental.
• Under the double effect, actions like self-defense, passive euthanasia, and potentially abortion could be justified, leading to conflicts between natural and divine law. In such cases, Christians must prioritize biblical law over natural law.