Muslim political and religious divisions

What you need to know - Muslim political and religious divisions: the split between the Sunni Seljuk Turks and the Shi'ah Fatimids of Egypt; the significance of Kilij Arslan's defeats at Nicaea and Dorylaeum 1097; the defeat of Kerbogha's forces at Antioch 1098; the fall of Jerusalem 1099.

The Seljuk Sultanate

The Seljuk Sultanate emerged from the uprising of an army commander called Seljuk against the Oghuz Confederation in the early 10th century. Following the separation of the Seljuk tribe, they captured the lands of Jand, Jend and Transoxiana, which became their capital. At the time of Seljuk's grandsons, Tughrul Begh and Chaghri, the Seljuk tribe migrated to Khorasan, a Seljuk homeland located in the northern part of Persia. Along with the Oghuz Turks, the Seljuks defeated the Gaznawids which marked the beginning of the Seljuk Empire.

Map showing the expansion of the Seljuk Turks from Asia to Anatolia

Territorial expansion

In 1064, Alp Arslan led the Seljuks and expanded their territories to Armenia and Georgia. By 1070, Anatolia was captured and the Byzantines were defeated in the Battle of Manzikert. Within two years, Seljuk expansion covered much of Asia Minor. Alp Arslan allowed the native population of conquered lands to create small principalities, called beghliks. The founding of beghliks gave way to the establishment of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum which covered areas from Rome to Anatolia. The Rum further expanded during the reign of his son Malik-Shah I. Many considered their rule as the golden age of the Seljuk Empire.

The Fatimid Caliphate was a Shi'ah caliphate which lasted between the 10th and 12th centuries. It covers much of present-day North Africa, from the Red Sea up to the Atlantic Ocean. The Fatimids were descendants of Fatimah, daughter of the prophet Muhammad and 'Ali b. Abi Talib, the first Shi'ite imam. The establishment of the caliphate can be traced back to between 902 to 909 CE.

Map showing the geographical scope of competing caliphates in 1000 AD

The Shiites opposed the appointment of Abu Bakr as the first caliph. They believed that Muhammad's true successor was Abi Talib or Ali, husband of Fatima. Following the death of Ali, the Sunnis from Damascus continued to create enemies within Islam. Another rebel group called the Abbasids emerged.

Must Know!

During the medieval period, three major caliphates flourished: The Rashidun, Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphate. The Mamluk Sultanate in Cairo and Ayyubid Caliphate also claimed to be caliphates. Almost all caliphates were hereditary monarchies.

After the death of Muhammad in 632, the Rashidun Caliphate was established. Ali, the fourth caliph of the Rashidun, was considered by Shia Muslims as the first rightful caliph after Muhammad. A civil war between 656 and 661 led to the establishment caliphate, the Umayyad. Its ruler Banu Ummaya was a descendant of Umayya ibn Abd Shams from Mecca.

Age of the Caliphs

Expansion under Muhammad, 622-632

Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661

Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750

Kilij Arslan's defeat at Nicae and Dorylaeum

In 1097, the first battle of the First Crusade happened in Nicaea. Located on the eastern shore of Lake Askania, Nicaea was captured by the Seljuks from the Byzantines in 1081. It was made the capital of the Sultanate of Rum. When the People's Crusade commenced, the lands surrounding the city were not alarmingly damaged. In response, Kilij Arslan, ruler of the Seljuks, underestimated the succeeding crusaders.

In 1097, Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemond of Taranto, and Tancred, were the first to arrive in Nicaea. They were followed by Raymond of Toulouse, Robert II of Flanders, and a small Byzantine force.

Map showing the crusaders' position during the Siege of Nicaea

On 16 May, about 200 Seljuk Turks were killed by the Crusaders. The Turks pleaded for the return of Kilij Arslan, who was in Danishmends. With news of losses, Arslan quickly returned. However, on 21 May, the Crusaders defeated Arslan. Along with his remaining troops, the Turks retreated. Between May and June, the crusading armies led by Robert Curthose and Stephen of Blois arrived at Nicaea.

Following the success of the crusaders at Nicaea, Byzantine Emperor, Alexios I secretly ordered his general, Manuel Boutoumites to negotiate the surrender of Nicaea to the Byzantines. Without the crusaders' knowledge, Alexios I made the surrender look like a Byzantine victory.

13th-century miniature depicting the crusaders bombarding Nicaea in 1097

When the Crusaders knew what the Byzantines had done, they plundered the city of its supplies. On 26 June, the Crusaders left Nicaea to face Arslan again at the Battle of Dorylaeum.

Kilij Arslan's defeat at Dorylaeum

When they left Nicaea, the Crusaders were divided into two groups. One was composed of Bohemond, Tancred, Robert Curthose, Robert of Flanders, and Takikios, the Byzantine general. The second group was composed of Godfrey of Bouillon, Baldwin of Boulogne, Raymond IV of Toulouse, Hugh of Vermandois, and Stephen II of Bois.

Recent estimates suggest that about 6,000 to 8,000 Turkish troops planned to ambush the Crusaders near Dorylaeum.

On 1 July, Bohemond's army, camped near the river Thymbres, was surrounded by Kilij Arslan's force. The Turks took Bohemond's army by surprise. While trying to resist the attacking Turks, Bohemond sent messengers to other crusade leaders for reinforcements.

The defeat of Kilij Arslan gave the Crusaders enormous wealth. His camp was filled with treasures which was later divided by the crusaders among themselves. While the remaining Turks fled to the east, the Crusaders marched through Anatolia unopposed.

With about 50 knights, Godfrey was the first to respond. He was followed by reinforcements from Raymond and Hugh.

The defeat of Kerbogha's forces at Antioch 1098

Historians suggest that if Kilij Arslan had defeated the crusaders at Dorylaeum, the First Crusade would have been a failure. When news of the crusaders' victory at Nicaea and Dorylaeum reached Europe, many people became interested in taking up the cross.

An illustration of Kerbogha besieging Antioch, from a 14th-century manuscript

On the way to Jerusalem, the Crusader army reached Antioch. Besieging the city was difficult due to lack of supplies and extreme winter conditions. Raymond IV proposed an immediate attack of Antioch while the Crusaders were opposed to the idea. Also, Yaghi-Siyan, the Turkish garrison commander of Antioch, managed to alienate him from the city.

The battle

In May 1098, Turkish commander Kerbogha had gathered an army which greatly outnumbered the Crusaders. However, Kerbogha's troops were delayed for three weeks as they tried to take Edessa.

During that delay, Bohemond negotiated an agreement with a lesser official of Antioch named Firouz. On the second day of June, the Crusaders would march west, giving a false impression that they had surrendered. As the Turks rested their defences, the Crusaders marched back into the city.

Battle as the knights ascended the tower via ladders

The Crusaders controlled most of the city by the end of 3 June 1098, with the exception of the citadel which remained with Shams ad-Daulah (Yaghi-Siyan's son). Papal legate, Adhemar of Le Puy, wished to keep good relations with the Byzantines especially since Bohemond was planning to take over the city; thus, Adhemar reinstated John the Oxite as patriarch.

Unfortunately, the city was short on food with Kerbogha's army only arriving 2 days later. On 7 June, he tried and failed to take over the city. By 9 June, he established his own siege around the city.

On 10 June, the Crusaders emerged from the city gate with Raymond of Aguilers carrying the Holy Lance before them. The Battle of Antioch took place with both sides strategising their way to victory. Though the Turks inflicted many casualties, this did not deter the Crusaders. Defeated Turkish troops panicked and retreated, including Duqaq which reduced the numerical advantage the Muslim army had over its Christian opponents.

The events resulted in a brief and disastrous fight for the Turks. Forces on the citadel under the command of Ahmed ibn Merwan surrendered the next day. Afterwards, the siege was broken and Antioch was now back in Christian hands.

The Holy Lance that pierced Jesus

Picture showing Peter Bartholomew's discovery of the Holy Lance

The Fall of Jerusalem 1099

After capturing Antioch in June 1098, the Crusaders began debating their next step with some content to establish themselves in the captured lands, while others decided to call for a march on Jerusalem. In December 1098, the Crusaders marched to Jerusalem, arriving in mid-1099. After several weeks, they captured the city. Bohemond, on the other hand, went back to Italy and convinced Pope Paschal II and King Philip I of France that the real threat to the Christian world was the Byzantines.

Medieval map of Jerusalem

The crusaders were now entering Jerusalem at two points, causing Ad-Daula's men to flee back towards the citadel. Eventually, they surrendered after seeing that further resistance was hopeless. The crusaders cried out "Deus Vult", meaning "God wills it", in celebration of their capture of Jerusalem.

According to the Gesta Francorum (Deeds of the Franks), the capture of Jerusalem was followed by a massacre of the Muslims. Many Muslims took refuge in the Al-Aqsa Mosque, the Temple Mount and the Dome of the Rock.

"...[our men] were killing and slaying even to the Temple of Solomon, where the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles..."

In the account of Fulcher of Chartres, about 10,000 Muslims including women and children were killed. Some accounts such as from Raymond of Aguilers mentioned that some Muslims survived and fled the city. The Jews who fought side by side with the Muslims faced a similar fate. According to Ibn al-Qalanisi, a Muslim chronicler, many Jews retreated to their synagogues and waited for the Franks to burn the temple with them. Another account also suggests that some prominent Jews were held for ransom by the Crusaders.

Depiction of the Siege of Jerusalem from a 13th-century miniature