Political Authority Opposition and government

📌 Did Lenin make a difference?

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April Theses 1917

• Lenin arrived at the Finland Station in Petrograd on the 3 of April 1917
• He immediately addressed the people
• His speech at the Finland Station ended the Bolshevik accommodation with the Provisional Gov and the other socialists

Lenin called for:

A worldwide socialist revolutionAn immediate end to the war

An end to co-operation with the Provisional Government

The soviets and in particular the Petrograd Soviet to take power

The land to be given to the peasants

• These ideas became known as the 'April Theses'
• Mensheviks condemned them as 'the ravings of a madman' and contrary to Marxist theory
• Some members of the Bolshevik Central Committee initially opposed him
• Lenin's personality and power of argument ensured the April Theses became Bolshevik Party policy
• They were turned into slogans e.g. 'Bread, Peace and Land' and 'All power to the Soviets'
• The populist slogans were effective propaganda
• Prioritising food supplies, ending the war, and putting workers in control appealed directly to the soldiers and workers whose expectations and demands were becoming more radical
• The notion of the immediate re-distribution of land brought the peasants to the side
• They had no interest in the Bolsheviks, but it was the only party that recognised their land seizures as legitimate
• Lenin was stealing the policy of the SRs and so produced a bonus of having them on the side too
• The Bolsheviks now provided a radically different alternative to the Provisional Gov and moderate socialists who were out of touch with the workers and soldiers
• The Bolshevik party became the main focus for the masses dissatisfied with its performance

Staging the October Revolution

• Lenin had been hiding in Finland
• He judged that the time was right for the Bolshevik seizure of power
• The Bolsheviks had control of the Petrograd Soviet and their popularity was at an all-time high
• They had done well in elections to the Soviets across Russia
• The liberals and other conservative forces were demoralised after the Kornilov Affair
• The Provisional Gov was helpless and extremely unpopular
• On the 12 of September, Lenin wrote to the Bolshevik Central Committee urging action
• "History will not forgive us if we do not assume power now"
• He secretly came to Petrograd on the 10 of October and argued with them all night until they agreed
• Zinoviev and Kamenev still believed it was too risky to attempt a seizure of power and published their views in Gorky's newspaper – Lenin never quite forgave them for this
• Trotsky urged Lenin to wait until the meeting of the Second Congress of All-Russian Soviets on the 26 of October

The issue of the Socialist coalition

• Lenin had taken power in the name of the Soviet
• Soon it became clear that the Bolsheviks were in control
• Lenin announced the Sovnarkom, entirely composed of Bolsheviks
• This was the Council of People's Commissars: the top Bolshevik gov. body (30-40 members)
• Some left SRs were later invited to join
• Lenin did not want to work with other socialists so did not exercise power through the Soviet
• The foundations of this government were shaky
• In the capital civil servants mounted protest strikes
• The State Bank refused to hand over any money
• Trotsky was greeted with laughter when introduced as new Minister of Foreign Affairs
• Alexandra Kollantai had the door of her ministry closed in her face when she tried to get in
• It took ten days and the armed forces to make bank staff open vaults
• Outside of the capital Bolshevik power was even more limited
• Most soviets and other local bodies were in control of Mensheviks, Socialist Revolutionaries and non-party socialists

• In the countryside, Bolshevik power was non-existent and there was a great deal of opposition to one-party rule
• Hundreds of resolutions and petitions flooded in from factory committees, army units, and Moscow and provincial towns
• They demanded that there be cooperation between the parties to avoid factional strife and civil war
• Petition from the 35 Army division: "Among the soldiers, there are no Bolsheviks, Mensheviks or Socialist Revolutionaries, only Democrats."
• Railway men's union (backed by the Post and Telegraph Union) threatened to cut off communications if Bolsheviks did not hold talks with other parties. This forced Lenin to send representatives to talks with other parties about power-sharing
• The planned elections to the Constituent Assembly were allowed to go ahead at the end of November
• Some leading Bolsheviks (Kamenev, Zinoviev) were in favour of a socialist coalition government, they believed an isolated Bolshevik party would have to maintain itself by terror and would not survive the civil war that would inevitably follow
• Lenin made sure the talks collapsed, however, he did bring Left Socialist Revolutionaries into the Sovnarkom. With them in government, he could claim representation of the interests of the peasantry
• Lenin always intended for the Bolsheviks to rule alone he saw the revolution as a turning point in world history. He had a vision of a utopian world order and he was not prepared to see his vision diluted by compromise with other socialists

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 1918

📌 When and why was Russia eventually forced into Brest-Litovsk?

• sticking to their ideological beliefs, the Left Communists wanted to turn the war into a revolutionary war to encourage European socialist revolution

• Lenin's pleas for a separate peace with Germany were vigorously opposed

• The Germans continued their advance – they progressed 150 miles in five days

• harsher peace terms than originally put forward had to be accepted

• this was only after further debate and Lenin's threat of resignation

• Trotsky resigned as Foreign Commissar

• on the 3 of March the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed

• The treaty was seen as a shameful peace

• Half the human, industrial, and agricultural resources of Nicholas II's empire were lost

• Aggravated severe grain shortages in the cities

• Encouraged patriotic Russians to join anti-Bolshevik forces and made civil war almost inevitable

• The Left SRs favoured a revolutionary war and resigned from Sovnarkom in protest at the treaty

• Russia lost:

62 million people (one sixth of the population)

27% of farmland (including some of the best in Russia

26% of railway lines

74% of iron ore and coal reserves

• Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania became independent republics
• Germans set up semi-independent governments in Belarus, Ukraine and Georgia
• Bessarabia was handed over to Romania
• The Russian-held area of Poland became part of the independent state of Poland
• There had been a short period of intense and quite free debate within the Bolshevik party
• After Brest-Litovsk had been ratified at the 7 Party Congress the Left Communists faded
• A potentially disastrous split in the Party had been prevented
• Congress resolved that a general tightening up of the Party was essential

Adopting the NEP 1921

• Lenin realised concessions to the peasants and some measure of economic liberalisation was essential for the regime to survive
• It was clear to him that gov could not continue with the War Communism policy
• Many Bolshevik The policy was considered a betrayal by party members, who believed it went against Bolshevik ideology. Lenin's decision to lift the ban on private trade was particularly resented. It took a lot of effort for Lenin to push the policy through the 10th Party Congress in March 1921. After the Kronstadt revolt, many who had doubts about the policy were willing to support Lenin as long as the New Economic Policy (NEP) was only a temporary measure. This was followed by increased political control. The Workers' opposition was met with scorn and ridicule by Lenin during the 10th Party Congress.

Establishing the Bolshevik State: War Communism and The Red Terror

📌 Why did the Reds win the Civil War?

Geographical factors

Reds

• Bolsheviks held the central area, including Moscow and Petrograd
• Much more heavily populated
• The red conscript army outnumbered the Whites
• Had industrial resources, armaments factories, Moscow, the rail hub

Whites

• Scattered around the edges of the central area
• Separated by large distances
• Made communications and coordination difficult
• No telephone links

Unity and organisation

Reds

• Had a single unified command structure
• Trotsky organised the Red Army into an effective fighting force

Whites

• Made up of different groups
• Could not agree on whether they were fighting for monarchism, republicanism or for the constituent assembly

Leadership

Reds

• Lenin used his authority to keep the Reds united
• He also backed Trotsky's controversial decision to use ex-tsarist officers
• Trotsky led the Red Army with great charisma
• His special train covered 65,000 miles from front to front

Whites

• Leaders were second-rate
• High levels of indiscipline and corruption within the armies
• Some officers lived in brothels in a haze of cocaine and vodka

Political factors

Reds

• Support of peasants was crucial
• They supplied the main body of soldiers for both sides (though they were just as inclined to desert from Red armies as from White armies)
• Lenin had legitimised their right to the land
• They stood for the revolution

Whites

• Lacked a political programme with any appeal
• If they won land would be restored to its former owners
• The main reason for their failure
• Their refusal to accept national independence movements was disastrous

Foreign intervention

Reds

• Allowed Bolshevik propaganda to present themselves as the defenders of Russian soil against foreign forces

Whites

• Gave the Whites weapons but was half-hearted and largely ineffective

Propaganda

Reds

• Propaganda was infinitely superior
• The red flag and red star were powerful symbols

Whites

• Did not see how valuable propaganda was
• Lenin dealt with domestic issues whilst Trotsky led the Red Army in war
• Lenin took direct control of the Sovnarkom
• The problems he faced were huge
• Farms and factories under peasant/worker control crashed
• There was a shortage of raw materials
• Output from factories and consumer goods declined
• This led to inflation

📌 How did Lenin and the Bolsheviks overcome opposition?

The challenge of ending the war

They believed war would collapse into a series of civil wars in European countries as the working class fought with the bourgeoisie following the worker's example in Russia

The Bolsheviks believed revolution in Russia could not survive without the support of workers' revolutions in advanced capitalist societies

Lenin believed peace was essential to ensure the survival of the regime: "Germany is only pregnant with revolution, and we have already given birth to a healthy child. In Russia, we must make sure of the throttling of the bourgeoisie, and for this, we need both hands free." Trotsky in the end after trying to negotiate, wanted no war but no peace with Germany, he hoped revolution would break out in Germany and Austria

Thirty-two favoured the Revolutionary War. Sixteen favoured Trotsky's position of no war but no peace on German terms. Fifteen favoured Lenin's policy of peace at any price (including Stalin)

Sticking to their ideological beliefs, the Left Communists wanted to turn the war into a revolutionary war to encourage the European socialist revolution. Lenin's pleas for a separate peace with Germany were vigorously opposed. The Germans continued their advance – they progressed 150 miles in five days. Harsher peace terms than originally put forward had to be accepted. This was only after further debate and Lenin's threat of resignation. Trotsky resigned as Foreign Commissar. On the 3rd of March the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed

Consequences of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

• The treaty was seen as a shameful peace
• Half the human, industrial, and agricultural resources of Nicholas II's empire were lost
• Aggravated severe grain shortages in the cities
• Encouraged patriotic Russians to join anti-Bolshevik forces and made civil war almost inevitable
• The Left SRs favoured a revolutionary war and resigned from Sovnarkom in protest at the treaty

Russia lost:

• 62 million people (one-sixth of the population)
• 27% of farmland (including some of the best in Russia
• 26% of railway lines
• 74% of iron ore and coal reserves
• Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania became independent republics
• Germans set up semi-independent governments in Belarus, Ukraine and Georgia
• Bessarabia was handed over to Romania
• The Russian-held area of Poland became part of the independent state of Poland
• There had been a short period of intense and quite free debate within the Bolshevik party
• After Brest-Litovsk had been ratified at the 7 Party Congress the Left Communists faded
• A potentially disastrous split in the Party had been prevented
• Congress resolved that a general tightening up of the Party was essential

The Civil War (1918-1920)

• Conflict broke out in May after a revolt by Czech former war prisoners flared up
• Anti-Bolshevik white armies strove to overthrow the Reds (the Bolsheviks)
• There were also the Greens

The Reds

• The Bolsheviks
• Led by Lenin and Trotsky
• As it became clear that the White success meant a restoration of the former ruling class and landowners they gained more support
• The peasants hated the landlords more than they hated the Bolsheviks

The Whites

• Dominated by senior officers in the Tsarist Army
• Were divided and uncoordinated
• As well as former Tsarists they included liberals, Socialist Revolutionaries and other moderate socialists
• The only thing they had in common was that they were all anti-Bolshevik
• Deeply divided
• Was not uncommon for White armies to fight each other
• Admiral Kolchak overthrew the Komuch in Nov 1918 in a military coup
• Another White weakness was their overt Russian nationalism which alienated national minorities

The Greens

• Further evidence that in the civil war, peasants had their overriding concerns
• Peasant armies
• Often made up of deserters from Whites or Reds
• Some of these armies fought for the Bolsheviks, some against
• Most were more concerned with protecting their area from the ravages of other marauding armies
• Probably the most famous Green member was Nestor Makhno, an anarchist in the Ukraine
• He was a skilled guerrilla leader
• At various times he fought the Reds, the Whites and the Germans
• Became an ally of the Bolsheviks
• The Ukrainians like many peasant armies were fighting for their independence

📌 How spontaneous was the 1917 February Revolution?

The winter of 1916-17 was bitterly cold. Food shortages were leading to 24-hour queues for bread. International Women's Day march – 23rd February 1917

• Mostly textile workers
• Over three days the crowds grew, e.g. the workers of Putilov joined
• Reflected the whole cross-section of society
• No centralised coordination as most opposition was abroad in exile
• Bolshevik cells helped to mobilise and agitate the people
• The army sympathised with the protestors and even joined in
• There was a death toll of around 1500, with several thousand wounded
• Two key demands: the end of the war and the Tsar
• The Tsar was forced to abdicate

📌 Why did the Army not support the Tsar?

• Many soldiers refused to act against the people
• Nicholas ordered troops to open fire on the protesters to put down the disorder
• Some regiments did and killed demonstrators
• The crowds became hostile and now the soldiers had to decide what side they were on
• One by one the regiments moved to the side of the people
• There was some fighting between soldiers in different regiments and several officers were killed (but this was largely over by the 27 of February)
• The NCOs (non-commissioned officers) were crucial in the decision not to open fire on the protestors
• These men had a more direct relationship with the soldiers than their senior officers
• They had decided not to open fire on the crowds
• Many soldiers in the Petrograd Garrison were young reservists who identified better with the people on the streets
• They were desperate not to be sent to the Front Line
• They shared their dissatisfaction with the conduction of the war and its impact on ordinary Russians

📌 How did the Duma take control?

• Whilst these events unfolded the Tsar was in Mogilev
• The president of the Duma, Rodzianko, sent him a telegram explaining the seriousness of the situation
• He suggested a new government should be formed with more power given to representatives
• Nicholas' answer was to suspend the Duma and send troops to restore order in the capital
• The Duma members remained in the Tauride Palace and held informal meetings whilst crowds outside demanded that they do something
• On Monday the 27 of February, the Duma formed a special committee made up of representatives of the main political parties
• They realised that things had gone too far for the Tsar to be involved in any kind of government
• The Russian Army High Command had come to the same conclusion and stopped the troop movements on Petrograd
• Nicholas made a final attempt to get back to the capital, but his train was stopped outside the city
• The Generals told the Tsar they would not support him
• On the 2 of March, Nicholas abdicated in favour of his brother, Michael, but he refused, thus swiftly ending the Romanov dynasty
• The Duma committee set about forming a new government | School of thought | Key Historians | Key Arguments | |---|---|---| | Western | Robert McKean, Beryl
  Williams | The Tsarist regime was
  making progress before 1914, there were signs of political progress, workers'
  the action was mainly economic rather than political, industrial growth had been
  dramatic, WWI produced strains the Tsarist gov. could not cope with | | Revisionist | Sheila Fitzpatrick | There were underlying
  weaknesses in the regime, the regime could not cope with the problems
  resulting from industrialisation and modernisation, there was a more educated
  conflict in society, the war exposed the structural weaknesses of the regime | | Conservative | Richard Pipes,
  Christopher Read, George Keenan | There were weaknesses in
  the regime in the face of the challenge of modernisation in a deeply divided
  country, the prevalence of ideological, ethnic and social hatred would be
  recourse to violence |

The October Revolution 1917

Kerensky and Lenin were key players in the 1917 October Revolution. Both were born in Simbirsk and Kerensky's father was Lenin's headmaster. Both were lawyers.

The lead-up to the revolution

• The dedicated Bolsheviks continued attending the Soviets as the great enthusiasm of the members of the other parties faded
• The numbers attending the Soviets fell overall, leading to a greater Bolshevik influence
• September: New elections – the Bolsheviks obtain the majority of seats in the Petrograd Soviet for the first time
• The combination of the failings of the Provisional Gov, The Kornilov Affair and the appeal of the Bolshevik's policies all increased the population of the party
• The Bolsheviks had 200,000 members and produced 41 newspapers, including Pravda
• The Red Guard (workers armed and trained by Bolsheviks) numbered 10,000 men (well-armed following the Kornilov affair)
• The Bolsheviks also had success in other cities including Moscow
• The army was disintegrating as thousands of soldiers were deserting following the summer offensive
• Food shortages in the cities were worsening as the grain supply from the peasants further declined
• Inflation was rampant
• Peasant unrest in the countryside was on the rise
• Many manor houses were burned down, and landlords were attacked
• Law and order were breaking down in urban areas too
• Crime increased – armed robbery, break-ins
• Workers grew more antagonised

The October Revolution

• Lenin had been hiding in Finland
• He judged that the time was right for the Bolshevik seizure of power
• The Bolsheviks had control of the Petrograd Soviet and their popularity was at an all-time high
• They had done well in elections to the Soviets across Russia
• The liberals and other conservative forces were demoralised after the Kornilov Affair

The October Revolution

• The Provisional Gov was helpless and extremely unpopular
• On the 12 of September, Lenin wrote to the Bolshevik Central Committee urging action
• "History will not forgive us if we do not assume power now"
• He secretly came to Petrograd on the 10 of October and argued with them all night until they agreed
• Zinoviev and Kamenev still believed it was too risky to attempt a seizure of power and published their views in Gorky's newspaper – Lenin never quite forgave them for this
• Trotsky urged Lenin to wait until the meeting of the Second Congress of All-Russian Soviets on the 26 of October

Kerensky's response

• He played into the hands of the Bolsheviks
• He tried to send the most radical army units out of the capital
• There were rumours he planned to abandon Petrograd to the Germans
• This allowed the Bolsheviks to persuade the Soviets to set up a Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC) in case of another attempted right-wing coup
• The MRC was dominated by the Bolsheviks and controlled by Trotsky
• It had more direct control over the soldiers in the capital and obtained great quantities of arms and ammunition
• It was now an open secret that the Bolsheviks intended to seize power

Alexander Kerensky

• In a last-ditch attempt to recover the situation Kerensky tried to close down two Bolshevik newspapers, restrict the power of the MRC and raise the bridges linking the working-class districts to the centre of Petrograd
• This gave the Bolsheviks an excuse for action, claiming that Kerensky was attacking the revolution
• Kerensky could not find loyal troops to help him deal with the Bolshevik threat
• He left Petrograd in a car borrowed from the American embassy

The Bolsheviks seize control

• At the Smolny Institute (Bolshevik HQ) Trotsky and Sverdlov organised the final stages of the revolution
• On the night of the 24 – 25 of October, units of the Red Guard, sailors and garrison soldiers were sent out to seize key points in the city
• This included the bridges, telephone exchange, the main railway stations and the power stations

The Bolsheviks Seize Control in Russia

• There was a bit of trouble at the main telegraph office but on the whole, any troops on duty faded away as the Red Guards appeared
• The next day in Petrograd the shops opened as normal, trams were running, and people went about their everyday business
• Many foreign observers in the embassies expected the Bolshevik move to crumble when people realised what was happening
• Meanwhile, the Bolsheviks had decided to move in on the Provisional Gov in the Winter Palace
• On the night of the 25 – 26 of October, Bolshevik soldiers entered the Palace
• At 2 am the remaining members of the government were arrested
• The All-Russian Congress of Soviets met the same evening
• Socialists from other parties denounced the actions of the Bolsheviks
• The other main socialist parties stormed from the hall
• Only the left-wing Socialist Revolutionaries remained
• This gave the Bolsheviks a majority in the congress
• Lenin later arrived and announced the formation of a Bolshevik government

While the insurrection in Petrograd was relatively bloodless, it was not the case in Moscow and some other towns.

There were ten days of bloody fighting in Moscow between the Bolsheviks and forces loyal to the Provisional Gov before a truce was agreed.

Forces under General Krasnov threatened Petrograd, but they were turned away by a mixed force of workers, sailors and soldiers.

However fragile, the Bolsheviks were now in power Russia.

The problems of 1921-22

• In February 1921 there were 118 separate uprisings according to Cheka sources
• The economy was in ruins
• Transport networks nearing total collapse
• Famine was rampant with many hundreds of thousands dying of illnesses such as typhus, cholera and dysentery
• The peasants were unwilling to tolerate ongoing "wartime" measures – they posed the biggest threat to the regime
• The most serious revolt was the Tambov uprising from August 1920 to June 1921
• It was led by Alexander Antonov

📌 What was the problem between peasants and

Bolsheviks?

The Bolsheviks had given the peasants nothing but trouble – the peasants were being disadvantaged by the Bolshevik state despite the support they were promised.

Economic problems

Why/What?

• Transport system on edge of total collapse
• Industrial production fell drastically
• Grain production fell to disastrously low levels
• Famine was rampant
• People were dying from the disease

Threats from the Peasantry

Why/What?

• Hostility to grain requisition grew
• Revolts erupted in the countryside
• Peasants reacted violently to requisitioning brigades
• Tambov uprising led by Alexander Antonov was the most serious revolt (poor harvest in 1920 left peasants with almost no reserves of grain)
• Remnants of Green armies were tough to crack
• Large areas of the countryside were in open revolt and outside of Moscow's control

Opposition from workers

Why/What?

• The severe winter of 1920-21 brought repeated strikes
• On Jan 22, 1921, the bread ration was cut by one-third in several cities
• This included Moscow and Petrograd
• Food demonstrations had to be broken up by Cheka and special troops
• Ordinary soldiers refused to fire on crowds
• Party spokesmen were howled down at workers' meetings
• Hostile resolutions were passed
• Urban workers were angry about

Food shortages

Militarised factories (workers could be imprisoned or shot if production targets not reached)

The way the state had made their unions no more than instruments to keep workers under control

• Calls for 'Soviets without communists'
• Revival in support of other socialist parties
• Martial law imposed in Moscow and Petrograd

Solutions/responses

• Workers opposition treated with scorn and ridicule by Lenin at the 10 Party Congress
• Kronstadt and peasant uprisings were brutally crushed by the Cheka and the Red Army
• Strikes lost momentum once leaders were arrested and restoration of free trade
• Mensheviks and SRs were outlawed
• 5,000 Mensheviks were arrested in 1921 for counter-revolutionary activities
• There was a show trial of SRs
• 34 of their leaders were condemned as terrorists, and 11 were executed
• Cheka was renamed the GPU
• They periodically harassed and arrested Nepmen as speculators and class enemies
• This was to show they were keeping capitalist tendencies under control

📌 How successful were the Bolshevik solutions?

The NEP (New Economic Policy)

Grain requisitioning abolished

• Replaced by a 'tax in kind'
• Peasants had to give a fixed proportion of their grain to the state
• The amount was much less than under War Communism
• Could sell any surpluses on the open market

Small businesses reopened

• Small-scale businesses under private ownership were allowed to reopen and make profits
• Included businesses like small workshops and factories making goods like shoes, nails and clothes

State control of the commanding heights of the economy

• The state kept control of large-scale heavy industries like coal, steel and oil
• Retained control of transport and the banking system
• Industry organised into trusts that had to buy materials and pay their workers from their budgets
• If they failed to manage budgets efficiently they could not expect the state to bail them out

Ban on private trade removed

• Removal of the ban on private trade meant food and goods could flow more easily between the countryside and towns
• Privately owned shops reopened
• Rationing was abolished
• People had to buy goods and food from their income

Nepmen

businessmen and entrepreneurs who took advantage of the NEP opportunities (around three million of them) (the gov rounded them up periodically and executed them to show they were still communist as the Nepmen went against communist ideology)

Glavlit

The ministry of propaganda and censorship – anything published will end up being pro-Bolshevik

Nomenklatura

A list of every job in government seen as important e.g. industry, education etc – only people who got those jobs were those who were pro-Bolshevik/pro-Lenin – only given to most loyal party members – became an elite in society

• By 1922 a dictatorship had been established
• Communists began to dominate the government
• Communist Party themselves became less democratic, more bureaucratic
• 1919 – Politburo of 7 individuals created
• Quickly dominated and took control away from the Sovnarkom
• Soviets became controlled by officials

The Red revolution

The July days

• The summer offensive failed in the war and had serious consequences for the Provisional Government
• It cost the lives of hundreds of thousands of soldiers
• The mounting frustration of workers and soldiers erupted at the beginning of July
• There were several days of uncontrolled rioting and disorder
• It became known as the July days
• It was the first direct challenge for the Provisional Gov

Events

• July 3: Sukhanov reported lorries and cars rushing about the city full of fierce-faced civilians and soldiers
• Armed groups marched in the streets
• July 4: 20,000 armed sailors arrived in Petrograd
• The sailors marched to the Tauride Palace where they demanded that the Soviets take power
• Chernov, the SR leader, was sent to calm them down but was seized
• He was rescued by Trotsky, but the atmosphere was very violent, and the Provisional Gov and Soviets had lost control of the capital
• Some historians see the July days as an early attempt by the Bolsheviks to take power
• The Bolshevik leadership was not ready to seize power and was paralysed by indecision
• Lenin was not even in Petrograd
• When he returned he appealed for restraint – he did not dissociate himself from the demonstrations, but he did not say that he was a leader
• The lack of leadership proved to be the undoing of the July rising
• Without a clear purpose, it lost its momentum
• When Soviet troops arrived the crowds dispersed
• Several leading Bolsheviks including Trotsky were arrested
• Lenin was forced into hiding in Finland
• Bolshevik newspapers were closed
• This was a setback for the Bolshevik cause

Kerensky and The Provisional Government

• The collapse of the Summer Offensive was a huge blow to the authority
• Huge amounts of lives and territory had been lost
• The coalition began to fall apart
• The Kadets (liberals) move further to the right in favour of law and order
• They blamed the socialist leaders and the Soviets for the militant strikes in the cities and for conceding self-government in Ukraine
• On the 2 of July, three Kadet ministers resigned
• Lvov then resigned as Prime Minister – "I have reached the end of the road and so, I'm afraid, has my sort of Liberalism."
• Kerensky became Prime Minister and was seen as the only man who could unite the country
• The balancing government had shifted in favour of the socialists
• Kerensky was keen to keep liberals in gov to ensure that the middle classes felt represented
• Industrialists and businessmen were rapidly losing faith in the gov because it could not control the workers and give them the stability they needed to run their businesses
• Landowners were losing faith because the gov could not stop the peasants from seizing their land and property
• Urban workers, peasants and soldiers were demanding more radical actions from the gov over land reform
• The economy and the war were becoming increasingly impatient

Problems the Provisional Government faced by the end of August

• The army was disintegrating – regiments were deserting and making their way back home
• The economy was getting worse in cities – there was little grain coming in from the countryside, and the prices of food & goods rose
• Control was breaking down in the countryside - Manor houses were being burned and landlords were being killed
• There was increasing lawlessness in cities
• Robbery and housebreakings were very common

The Kornilov affair

• Kerensky concluded that the only course open to him was to restore law and order in the cities and discipline in the army
• He desperately needed troops he could count on to carry out his orders and deal with any Bolsheviks
• He appointed Kornilov (the son of a Cossack) as Commander of Russian forces and entered an agreement with him - to bring trusted groups to Petrograd
• Kornilov saw it as an opportunity to crush the radical socialists, prevent the worst excesses of the revolution, and restore order and authority in Petrograd
• The middle class saw him as a potential saviour who would protect their property and interests
• He began to move his forces towards Petrograd to reinstate military control
• Kerensky panicked in the face of Kornilov's move on the capital
• He turned to the Soviets for help to defend Petrograd from counter-revolution
• The people were terrified by the prospect of a military dictatorship
• To them, this meant the return of the old order, bloodshed and loss of the gains of the revolution
• Soldiers in Petrograd were worried they might be forced to go to the front
• The Bolsheviks came to the city's aid
• Bolshevik foot soldiers came out on the streets alongside soldiers, workers and sailors
• They prepared to defend the city and were given arms by the Provisional Gov
• Kornilov's troops did not arrive because railway workers halted the trains carrying them to Petrograd
• Kornilov was arrested

Consequences of Kornilov's affair

1. Kerensky's reputation was irreversibly damaged
2. Menshevik and SR leaders were discredited because of their association with Kerensky
3. Soldiers, infuriated by what they thought was an officer plot, murdered hundreds of officers
4. Generals could not rely on loyal troops to carry out their orders
5. Many armed forces felt Kerensky had betrayed Kornilov and were not prepared to fight for him in the coming confrontation with the Bolsheviks
6. The Bolsheviks rode back on a wave of popular support as the saviours of the city and true defenders of the revolution

Worker radicalisation and Bolshevik popularity

• Workers became highly politicised and radicalised in the months leading up to October
• Food was short and wages could not keep pace with inflation Daily bread rations per person in Petrograd went from 675g in March (for manual workers) to 110g in October 1917

For others, it was 450g in March to 110g in October

• Unemployment was rising
• Strikes were frequent and militant
• Employees were assaulted and crowds broke into the houses of the middle classes accusing them of hoarding food
• Workers were not prepared to wait for the Provisional Gov any longer
• They felt the gov was backing businessmen who were trying to control them and their expectations in hopes were not being met
• Moderate Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries in the Soviet (and Provisional Gov) didn't appreciate the want for change
• They had become detached from the mass of the workers
• They still believed they couldn't take the revolution further and needed to keep the middle classes attached to gov and the war economy going
• This brought them into collision with the popular movement which wanted the Soviets to take the lead and bring about serious social reform and improve economic conditions
• The only party that seemed to offer change were the Bolsheviks - so they were greatly followed

In February of that year, they had around 10,000 members

o In October they had around 250,000 members

• The Kornilov affair boosted support for the Bolshevik party
• The Bolsheviks were doing well in the cities and were elected in huge numbers to the Soviets
• September 9: Bolsheviks gained overall control of the Petrograd Soviet
• September 25: Trotsky was elected its president
• Also took control of the Moscow Soviet
• Dominated the executive committees of Soviets throughout urban Russia

Kerensky vs Kornilov

Kerensky PM à Kornilov tasked with discipline in army à 'loyal troops' led to Petrograd à Kerensky gets scared à Soviet and Bolshevik soldiers protect. Petrograd à Kornilov stopped before entering à Bolsheviks look like saviours

The role of Alexander Kerensky and Lenin

Kerensky and Lenin were key players in the 1917 October Revolution. Both were born in Simbirsk and Kerensky's father was Lenin's headmaster. Both were lawyers.

Alexander Kerensky

• Following the 1905 revolution he was imprisoned for four months for publishing a socialist newspaper
• This cemented his radical reputation
• Following his release he joined the Duma and joined the left-leaning Trudovik group, allied with the SRs
• He was liked across society
• He was a member of both the Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government
• He was seen as the 'first love of the revolution' following the Feb 1917 revolution and the toppling of the Tsar
• In March 1917 he made a speech to the Soviets asking for approval of his decision to join the Provisional Gov as Minister of Justice
• Became the most influential member of gov and was Prime Minister from July 1917
• He had great skills as an orator and was famous for his passionate and dramatic speeches
• He was energetic and tenacious but also temperamental vain and overconfident
• He took great care in his appearance and had a picture of himself at his huge desk printed on tens of thousands of postcards and newsreels made of his public appearances
• When he became Prime Minister he saw himself as the man destined to save Russia
• He adopted a self-important air, and this distanced him from the people
• He moved to Tsar Alexander III's rooms in the Winter Palace
• Was compared with Napoleon and revelled in this role – he had a bust of the French Emperor on his desk

The Return of Lenin

• Stalin and Kamenev were the first leading Bolsheviks to arrive in Petrograd
• Kamenev argued for cooperation with the Provisional Gov and there was talk of reuniting with the Mensheviks
• They thought that socialists should work together to take the revolution forward
• Lenin was in Switzerland and was eager to get to Petrograd, but this involved crossing German territory
• The Germans let him through, however, hoping he would stir up trouble
• Lenin arrived at the Finland Station in Petrograd on the 3 of April 1917
• He immediately addressed the people
• His speech at the Finland Station ended the Bolshevik accommodation with the Provisional Gov and the other socialists

Lenin called for:

• A worldwide socialist revolution

• An Immediate end to the war

• An end to co-operation with the Provisional Gov

• The Soviets and in particular the Petrograd Soviet took power

• The land to be given to the peasants

• These ideas became known as the 'April Theses'

• Mensheviks condemned them as 'the ravings of a madman' and contrary to Marxist theory

• Some members of the Bolshevik Central Committee initially opposed him

• Lenin's personality and power of argument ensured the April Theses became Bolshevik Party policy

• They were turned into slogans e.g. 'Bread, Peace and Land' and 'All power to the Soviets'

• The populist slogans were effective propaganda

• Prioritising food supplies, ending the war, and putting workers in control appealed directly to the soldiers and workers whose expectations and demands were becoming more radical

• The notion of the immediate re-distribution of land brought the peasants to the side

• They had no interest in the Bolsheviks, but it was the only party that recognised their land seizures as legitimate

• Lenin was stealing the policy of the SRs and so produced a bonus of having them on the side too

• The Bolsheviks now provided a radically different alternative to the Provisional Gov and moderate socialists who were out of touch with the workers and soldiers

• The Bolshevik party became the main focus for the masses dissatisfied with the government's performance

Lenin's Justification for the April Theses

• He believed the middle classes in Russia were too weak to carry through the democratic revolution
• He claimed the proletariat had already taken power in the Soviets (particularly the Petrograd Soviet)
• He said they were the driving force for the revolution
• This meant there was no reason for a period of middle-class-dominated parliamentary democracy
• The proletariat however was still relatively small in size
• Marxist theory required a population that was overwhelmingly proletarian to carry through the socialist revolution
• Lenin maintained that the circumstances in Russia were special, and the peasants could be treated as proletarians with their powerful revolutionary force and consciousness of class position
• His ideas fitted with the wider view of the world revolution that had been suggested by Trotsky
• They believed a worldwide socialist revolution would start not in a highly industrialised society as Marx had suggested but in a backward country where capitalism was just developing and conflict between industrialists and workers was more acute
• Trotsky and Lenin thought the 'weakest link' in the capitalist chain would break first and once the revolution had begun it would spread to the proletariat in other countries
• They considered Russia to be the weakest link and the war had acted as a catalyst to bring Europe to the brink of a socialist revolution
• Lenin was sure Germany was about to explode into a revolution
• Both thought once the revolution started the proletariat of the advanced capitalist countries would aid the Russian proletariat and help them develop the conditions in which socialism could be built