Positivism and Interpretivism

Positivist and Quantitative methodologies

Qualitative methodologies:

Comte - credited with terming 'Sociology - argued sociology should be based on the methodology of sciences and should be treated as such.

• Laws if society can show the development of society - this is called positivism
• For him, this is not all about observable facts and not invisible things that cannot be observed - like meanings. So behaviour in society is similar to the way in which things react to external forces e.g. pressure and heat.
• External forces affect behaviour in both the natural world and society (cause and effect)
• Behaviour must be observed in a measurable way and objectively quantified in the form of numbers.
• They must be free from bias and value.
• This quantitative data can be analysed and correlations found, between social facts.

Durkheim - another founder of sociology: 'social facts' should be treated in the same way as natural world factors.

• They can be analysed, quantified and measured, religious beliefs, norms and values for example can be measured and quantified. And we can see how these affect other things.
• These social facts are powerful and exist outside the individuals.
• Norms and values shape society and the way in which we believe - it isn't the individual that creates these. Human behaviour is constrained by social facts just as matter is constrained by natural forces.
• Durkheim's study of suicide rates - goes some way to explain his theory.
• He believes that society causes suicide and not the psychology of the individual.
• Suicide rates are social facts - there are factors in society that determine whether or not someone commits suicide (cause and effect)
• Durkheim examined suicide rates across European countries (the late 1890s)
• He found rates were constant across countries.
• He also found there were groups in society that were affected more than others: protestants, older, married without children, unmarried and rural.
• He concluded it was down to the level of integration.
• 'Suicide varies inversely with the degree of integration of the social group of which the individual forms a part

Interpretivist methodologies:

• Interpretivists reject the scientific approach - for them, it is all about meaning, they prefer certain research methods (observation/unstructured interviews).
• Qualitative data is rich in meaning and we are able to gain a deeper understanding.
• Human beings attach meanings to actions and these can be complex and varied - A02 synoptic link to social action theories.
• For interpretivists, we cannot treat human behaviour in the same way we approach the scientific disciplines.

Atkinson: as we saw, Durkheim used a scientific approach to study suicide. In comparison, Atkinson approached it from a more Interpretivist approach.

• He argued suicide rates are not objective social facts – suicide has a meaning.
• He focussed on the meaning of suicide given by coroners.
• RM – attended coroners' meetings and inquiries, held discussions, analysed reports and observed them at work.
• He argued coroners have a 'common sense' theory of suicide - they will examine: Threats/type of death/location/biography
• The closer the deceased fits this profile the more likely it is to be a suicide.
• This way the conclusions can be similar to Durkheim's typical suicide is friendless, divorced, loner.
• Atkinson argues suicide is a construction of meaning

Douglas: is less extreme – he argues suicide is not simply a meaning.

• He argues one can actually prove whether or not it was suicide.
• It is an act given meaning by the people affected – victim, friends, family, coroner etc. - It is the sociological researcher's job to uncover these meanings and to judge whether or not they indicate actual suicide.
• Step 1: examine the meanings victims give to the possible suicide – notes, diaries, interviews, biography.
• Step 2: look for meanings that appear common to a number of possible suicides – cry for help/self-punishment/escape.
• Step 3: link these patterns with the wider culture – western culture – act of desperation/humility
• He concludes that statistics on suicide are the result of negotiated meanings and social interactions. E.g. The family may want to conceal the suicide for whatever reason and therefore the verdict is different.
• He argues that by only following steps 1,2,3 you can gain a far more accurate verdict.

Qualitative methodology has increased in popularity - sociology and psychology:

• Data is naturally occurring and not structured by the researcher.
• Often created by observation in the natural setting.
• Interviews as well - natural and fluid, non-directed and informal.
• Yes, there are biases and individual values and this should be considered when producing data.
• They will develop meanings and categories rather than have them preconceived.
• Arguably produces rich, detailed and valid data. Mixed methods approach: many argue a mixed approach is better e.g. observation and questionnaires in a single project.

Objectivity, values and reflexivity:

• Complete value-free and objective sociology is impossible - researchers did actually think it was achievable until the 1950s.
• We are not robots and as humans, it is impossible to detach our sympathies and beliefs, and because of this research is always going to be value-laden (to an extent)/
• Becker saw society as divided into powerful and powerless and it is impossible not to take both sides. Reflexivity - constantly reflecting upon their work/research and looking at factors that could have affected outcomes.

Value-Free Sociology

Definition:

Value-free sociology is the idea that sociologists should keep their personal beliefs and values out of their research. The goal is to study society in an unbiased, objective way.

Explanation:

This approach, supported by Max Weber, suggests that while researchers might choose topics based on their interests, they should aim to be neutral during the research process to ensure their findings are purely based on facts.

Value-Laden Sociology

Definition:

Value-laden sociology recognises that researchers' personal values and beliefs can influence their work. It accepts that complete objectivity is difficult to achieve.

Explanation:

This approach acknowledges that a sociologist's background and opinions might shape their research choices and interpretations. Some believe that being aware of these influences can make the research more relevant to real-world issues.

A02 -

Tepoztlan in Mexico - two researchers studied the people there 17 years apart.

• Redfield, 1930: found the people friendly, welcoming and warm
• Lewis, 1947: found the people unwelcoming, fearful and angry.
• Reflecting, they both agreed that it was down to personal characteristics as researchers, the town and the people hadn't changed, the researcher had.
• Redfield liked the people and there was chemistry.
• Lewis didn't like the people and there was animosity.

Hollis - observed female and BME police in the USA.

• Witnessing a fight, she was accidentally pepper sprayed by the officer she was observing.
• She stuck with it and continued her research despite being in some distress.
• This changed the way the police saw her - seeing her as more as part of their group.
• This could have made her data less valid and reliable.

Postmodernist methodology:

• Postmodernists reject the idea that there is a truth to be discovered out there and challenge the entire basis of research in sociology.
• They believe sociological research is simply a construct that researchers have created to fit their agenda.
• They believe objectivity is a myth - research is designed to give the impression that it is persuasive and useful.
• Researchers skillfully present an illusion of objectivity when none exists.
• Relativism: everything is in relation to time, space and culture and therefore there is no absolute truth - we see things through our own lens.
• Postmodernists stress the ambiguity of the social world: there are no sub-cultures, society, social roles or class.
• It cannot be defined and pigeonholed into redetermined, fixed categories.
• For postmodernists this is creating order when none exists - they impose a particular view of reality.
• Defamiliarisation - looking at the world in a completely new way - we should see the social world as crazy, fragmented, fluid, fast-paced, irrational and contradictory.

A03 - Evaluation:

• Their own theory is a theory and by their own definition so is not any more right or wrong than another.
• However, it has changed the way sociologists think and encourages researchers to re-think research and consider various points.

Feminist methodology:

• Researchers are largely men
• Samples are largely men
• Women's issues are seen as less important and less frequent.
• Women are portrayed in a stereotypical way in research
• Males are subliminally seen as more important.

Examples include the crime statistics focused on men, housework focused on women's contribution and studies on social class often focussing on the male head of the house.

• Oakley claims that research methods such as interviews are hierarchical, controlling and manipulative.

• They should be replaced with more equal conversations where researchers are prepared to open up too - this would help validity and honesty.

• She argues these techniques are so imbued with male assumptions.

• They believe mainstream ("malestream") sociology is saturated with male dominance - a female alternative is needed. Miers (93): feminist methodology must have:

  1. Conscious partiality
  2. View from below
  3. Action research - research should be active in women's struggle, not just an observer
  4. Changing status quo
  5. Raising consciousness
  6. Individual and social history - raising awareness of history so women can reclaim power from men.
  7. Collectivising experience.

• Mies is arguing that you need values in order to obtain the truth - research should not be value-free.

• Some feminists go further and say one has to experience oppression to really research it - the primacy of experience.

Postmodernism Feminism:

• Reject women as a homogenous group and even reject the sub-divisions (eg black women).
• It is for them about diversity and not preconceived ideas.

A03 - Evaluation:

• Feminists argue that it undermines the aim of feminism - we should see women as a whole when they are being undermined, dividing and conquering will be detrimental to the cause.

Is sociology a science?

Positivists - yes it is

• Invariable law governs society
• Data consists of observable facts that can be measured and quantified
• Research process is objective - value free
• Cause and effect factors that underlie behaviour
• Statistical data offer trends/patterns between factors and from that we develop hypotheses - these lead to theories.
• These can be tested.

Karl Popper - doesn't fully agree:

• He argues that instead of trying to prove theories - he believes it is up to falsifying theories.
• He argues that instead of using inductive reasoning we need to use deductive reasoning.
• He uses the black swan analogy to further explain this.
• Theories of human behaviour which can be potentially falsified can be developed.
• Marxists' idea of the Proletariat rising up and revolting cannot be falsified.
• Sociology therefore may be pre-paradigm or pre-scientific.

Realist approach - sociology could be a science

• Social science is possible - but there are basic differences between natural and social worlds
• Both have underlying structures and mechanisms that they are built on.
• The job of scientists is to uncover them
• Closed system = more control over the variable and easier to predict. Chemistry uses a closed system
• In an open system = there is less control and it is harder to predict.
• This means sociology can only be seen as a science in a closed system
• You can't say poverty = underachievement for example as it is not as simple as cause and effect, there are other factors.

Interpretivists:

• Natural scientists study matter and the way it acts which is predictable
• Humans react rather than act (agency). It is all about meaning which must be understood.
• Sociologists must therefore understand meaning - observation and interpretation (Qualitative research)
• They believe that sociology is seen as an art rather than a science.
• Objectivity is not possible - values and emotions are involved and these values form part of the research process.
• Standpoint theory = we should use our emotions to enrich our data.