34.1.1 States as key actors in global politics and the balance of power (state sovereignty).

States as Key Actors in Global Politics

States as Central Players in International Relations

• International Anarchy and Self-Help System: In the international system, states are considered the primary actors due to the nature of international anarchy. This means there is no overarching global authority to enforce rules or mediate conflicts, leading to a self-help system where states must rely on their own resources and strategies to secure their interests.
• Sovereignty and Accountability: States are sovereign entities, meaning they are only accountable to themselves and their citizens. No higher authority exists to hold states accountable, especially those with significant power. States with large amounts of power, such as superpowers, are particularly difficult to hold accountable by international bodies or other states.
  • Example: The United States, as a global superpower, often acts unilaterally or with minimal regard for international consensus, reflecting its prioritization of national sovereignty and limited accountability to global institutions.

National Interest as the Driving Force

• Paramount Importance of National Interest: The national interest is the primary concern for all states and is generally seen as the common goal of all citizens. This national interest shapes a state's foreign and domestic policies and is considered the ultimate aim in international relations.
• Challenges of Acting in International Interest: States that prioritize international interests over national ones may face domestic challenges and find it harder to justify their actions to their citizens. National interest often trumps international cooperation, particularly when the two are in conflict.
  • Example: The U.S. withdrawal from international agreements, such as the Paris Climate Agreement under the Trump administration, was justified by a perceived conflict between national interest (economic growth and sovereignty) and international commitments.

Sovereignty and Reluctance to Relinquish Power

• Sovereignty as a Core Principle: States pride themselves on their sovereignty and are generally unwilling to relinquish or pool their power with international governmental organizations (IGOs). Sovereignty is seen as a fundamental right and a cornerstone of statehood.
• Limited Participation in IGOs: While states may choose to participate in IGOs to maximize their power and influence, they often place strict limits on how much sovereignty they are willing to sacrifice. Participation in IGOs is often driven by pragmatic concerns rather than a desire to cede power.
  • Example: The European Union (EU) is a unique case where member states have pooled sovereignty in certain areas. However, even within the EU, states like the United Kingdom have expressed concerns about sovereignty, leading to Brexit.

The Security Dilemma

• Reinforcement of the State as Key Actor: The security dilemma arises when states, seeking to defend their interests, engage in actions that make other states feel threatened. This often leads to an arms race or other security measures, reinforcing the state's role as the primary actor in global politics.
• Risk of New State Threats: As states enhance their security, they inadvertently create new threats by provoking other states to respond in kind. This cycle underscores the importance of states in maintaining their own security and sovereignty.
  • Example: The U.S. and China's military build-up in the Asia-Pacific region reflects the security dilemma, where actions taken by one state to secure itself are perceived as threats by others, leading to a regional arms race.

Balance of Power

The Concept of Balance of Power

Balancing Among States: The balance of power refers to the distribution of power among states in the international system. States constantly seek to balance against one another to prevent any one state from becoming too powerful, which could threaten the sovereignty and security of others.

• Example: During the Cold War, the balance of power between the U.S. and the Soviet Union prevented either from achieving global dominance, leading to a relatively stable, albeit tense, international order.

Systems of Polarity and Their Impact on Balance of Power

Unipolar Systems: In a unipolar system, one state holds overwhelming power and influence. This can lead to stability, as the dominant power can enforce rules and norms, but it can also create resentment and resistance from other states.

• Example: The post-Cold War period was marked by U.S. unipolarity, with the U.S. acting as the world's sole superpower. Bipolar Systems: In a bipolar system, two major powers dominate the global stage. This system is often seen as stable because the two powers can check each other's ambitions, reducing the likelihood of large-scale conflict.

• Example: The Cold War was a bipolar system with the U.S. and the Soviet Union as the two superpowers, each leading its respective bloc. Multipolar Systems: In a multipolar system, multiple states hold significant power. This can lead to a more complex and unstable international environment, as multiple powers must navigate alliances and rivalries, increasing the potential for miscalculation.

• Example: The current global order is increasingly seen as multipolar, with China, Russia, the U.S., and the EU all playing significant roles in global politics.

Risks Associated with the Balance of Power

• Potential for Misreading Intentions: In any balance of power system, especially in multipolarity, states may misread each other's intentions, leading to conflicts or tensions that could escalate uncontrollably.
• Escalation of Conflicts: The complexity of balancing multiple powers can lead to conflicts, particularly if states feel threatened by the actions of others or if alliances shift unpredictably.
  • Example: The lead-up to World War I is often cited as an example of how a multipolar balance of power can fail, as a series of miscalculations and alliances led to a large-scale and devastating conflict.

Current Global Polarity

Multi-Polar World: The world today is often described as multipolar, with several powerful states (China, Russia, the USA, and the EU) each holding significant influence. This multipolarity creates a more complex balance of power compared to the unipolar or bipolar systems of the past.

• Example: The interactions among these powers, particularly in regions like the Middle East and Asia-Pacific, reflect the challenges and instability that can arise in a multipolar world order.