Structural approaches

Structural approaches:

E.G. Marxism, Feminism and Functionalism

Are top-down theories - look at society first and then the impact this has on individuals - macro.
Emphasises the power of society over the individual
Believe the individual is largely controlled by society
Think that society is moulding our thoughts and directing our actions.
Argue that we are socialised in terms of the culture of society
Say that our behaviour is shaped by the social structure:
- We are kept in line by mechanisms of social control (police, courts, law)
- We learn roles, norms and values and act according (socialisation)
Functionalists believe that all of this is a positive - we can be functioning members of society
Marxists and feminists disagree, who benefits? Who controls?

Functionalism

is a consensus theory:

Rooted in the work of Durkheim and then refined by Parsons and Merton
Very popular in the 1950s and 1960s = but it is still relevant today? Is it an outdated theory? AO3
Functionalism regards society as a stable and harmonious integrated social system, with social order and cohesion and maintained by a fundamental value consensus.

Parsons

Integration of individuals into society:

Society is based on a value consensus (shared values) = needs to be social order
To get that into our heads, we need to be (1) Socialised into that culture's particular norms and values.
This can also be done through (2) Social control – positive sanctions reward conformity, while negative ones punish deviance. E.g. work hard = good job. Deviate = punished.

Society as a social system = organic analogy - Parsons

The functionalists' idea is that if all the systems (organs) in society are functioning in harmony it will remain healthy.
But if one or other of these vital institutions starts to malfunction, then society becomes dysfunctional_._
Just like the human body, society has functional prerequisites (basic needs or requirements that must be met if society is to survive)
Institutions like the family, education + the workplace exist to satisfy these basic needs, and they work together to meet these needs for the benefit of society…
Parsons suggests that to survive in a healthy state, all societies have to resolve 2 sets of problems: instrumental and expressive
He believes that societies also have to satisfy 4 functional prerequisites (basic needs that must be met in order for society to survive), which are met by 4 related subsystems
This has come to be known as the GAIL model: Goal attainment: Society needs to set goals to attain them as well as the ability to make decisions. Political parties we vote in do this for us - the political subsystem

Adaptation: The environment to meet people's needs and achieve valued social goals (food and shelter). Met by the economic subsystem (factories, shops for economic production)

Integration: Different parts of the system must integrate to pursue shared goals. Socialisation and social control are key to this. The religion, education and media subsystems.

Latency: Society needs to be maintained over time. Social tensions and interpersonal conflicts need to be prevented to ensure individuals feel motivated to continue their roles.

The family subsystem provides 'pattern maintenance' (socialisation into roles of society) and 'tension management'(a place to let off steam after the stress of work)

Social change and social evolution

Functionalists regard social change as occurring when new functions emerge or society needs to adapt
Societies evolve – this is only normal – a change in one part will result in changes elsewhere, but the system will remain balanced and stable
Parsons explains this in terms of structural differentiation (as societies evolve and new needs arise for society and individuals, institutions become more specialised and functions they once performed are lost to new functions)
Society realised that the family could no longer perform specific functions in a more complex industrial society. It lost its functions to new specialised institutions…
- E.g. The family used to educate their children…now the school does
- E.g. The family used to look after the sick members…now we have the NHS]

A02 Synoptic links:

Parsons argues the nuclear family primarily socialises us into a value consensus
Parsons argues the family stabilises adult personalities (warm bath theory)
Parsons argues the education system provides children with secondary socialisation
Crime and Deviance can be a good thing = when crime increases, it tells us something needs to be done to fix it…society can adapt and change…it reaffirms our collective conscience.

A03 evaluation:

Parsons overemphasises harmony and consensus and ignores/downplays the extent of conflict and the unequal distribution of power in society – with which Marxist and feminist conflict theorists are concerned about.
Too focused on the nuclear family – however there are functional alternatives.
Overemphasis of the positive functions, but some functions may be dysfunctional (e.g. to women) …see Merton box below

Durkheim

Social Facts

One idea of Durkheim is that society exists as a separate entity over and above its members
A system of external 'social facts' shaping their behaviour to serve society's needs
These facts can be measured objectively to show patterns of behaviour
He did this in his study of suicide (Crime and Deviance link) = cause of effect.
In his theory of suicide, he explored the external forces of: = Moral regulation

= Social integration

The more integrated a person was in society, the less likely they were to commit suicide
He measured this using suicide statistics in different European countries and compared the rate with how integrated they were based on their religion, family status (married, single etc)

Social Change

He argued that the rapid social change that he saw during the Industrial Revolution from a simple society to one with a complex division of labour
In a simple society, there was a high collective conscience. Institutions such as religion reinforced this
This social change weakens the bonds between individuals and weakens social solidarity. This means there is a risk of anomie (normlessness)

The establishment and maintenance of social order – value consensus and social integration

Durkheim said because people are selfish, society would fall into chaos and disorder unless we all shared the same values
Durkheim therefore placed great importance on the role of social institutions, such as the family and the education system, in socialising people into what he called a value consensus or collective conscience
This can build social solidarity and social cohesion and regulate individual behaviour

A02 Synoptic links:

Families and Education system = provide socialisation Durkheim's functions of Education:

The education system instils social solidarity
Teaches social rules and how to abide by them
Teaches specialist skills

A03 Evaluation:

Overemphasis on consensus and ignores conflict, such as class and gender
Society is diverse – no longer shared values + collective conscience
Interpretivists would disagree

Merton - The internal critique

Merton criticises Parsons' concept of universal functionalism – the idea that everything in society performs a positive function
He argues that in complex modern societies, this is doubtful...
He argues that many things are actually DYSFUNCTIONAL
E.g. various religions + faiths – this may divide rather than unite society = Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland
His overall point is that we cannot just simply assume that society is always a smooth-running, well-integrated system

Merton's manifest and latent functions

Merton suggested there were manifest functions of an institution, but also latent functions alongside them

Manifest functions – the positive functions 'intended and recognised by participants in the system'
Latent functions – are neither 'intended nor recognised'

Indispensability

This idea states that certain institutions or social arrangements are indispensable to society = that society cannot operate without them
For example, Davis and Moore (1967) claim that religion 'plays a unique and indispensable part in human society'
Merton questions this assumption = he argues that a functional prerequisite may be met by a range of alternative institutions
To replace the idea of indispensability, Merton suggests the concept of functional alternatives/equivalents E.g. Parsons assumes that primary socialisation is best performed by the Nuclear Family – but perhaps lone-parent families or other family types do it JUST as well or BETTER!

A02 Synoptic links:

NHS can be dysfunctional = spread diseases
Families can socialise children poorly…
Religion can divide people…
Families – lone parents can be just as effective as the nuclear family

A03 Evaluation:

Merton, Durkheim and Parsons can all be criticised (pg.373-374):

Social action theorists see Parsons as too deterministic – he sees individuals as simple passive products of the social system that are socialised into conformity and controlling their behaviour. He doesn't allow for individual choice and pays no regard to the actions, interpretations and meanings individuals give to situations, as the social actions theorists do.
Functionalism is a metanarrative or grand theory that tries to explain EVERYTHING from a SINGLE perspective. Postmodernists say that such metanarratives can no longer explain contemporary societies, where social life is chaotic and value diverse
Is there really a value consensus? Links to the point above. Surely in a dog-eat-dog society, there is actually more conflict and resentment rather than consensus and harmony.

Marxism:

Similarities with Functionalism:

Structural theory (top-down)
Macro approach
They see individuals as passive puppets with limited choice
Scientific (quantitative) research methods

Main differences with functionalism:

Society is in conflict not consensus
Social change is not smooth and gradual (e.g. like Parson's structural differentiation theory)

Features:

Modernist theory - like functionalism
Believed that a scientific analysis of society and an understanding of its development would provide the means for improving it.
Eventually, there would be a revolution and a communist society would replace capitalism
Different types of Marxism:
1. Classic/Traditional Marxism
2. Neo-marxism (Humanistic and structuralist)

Background to Traditional Marxism

Marx believed that at the dawn of human history, people lived in a state of 'primitive communism'

Food and shelter were communally owned – owned by all members of society

Everyone would look after each other – therefore, there were NO conflicts of interest…

Things changed with the emergence of private property, in particular with the private ownership of the means of production

These are the materials and technology used in the production of goods and services

Base and Superstructure

Marx believed that the economy was the driving force in society, and it was this that determined the nature of social institutions, and people's values and beliefs.
Marxism sees the structure of society divided into 2 main parts: The Economic Base or Infrastructure, which underpinned and determined everything else in society. This consisted of:
The Means of Production like land, factories, raw materials etc that produce society's goods
The Relations of Production – the relationships people enter into in order to produce goods and services
The Superstructure, which includes society's social institutions. These are determined/influenced by the economic system

Private Ownership and the Emergence of the Ruling and Subject Class

Now the relations of production consisted of two main classes 3. Ruling class (bourgeoise) 4. Working class (proletariat) 5. High profits 6. Low cost (salary) 7. Extra production (surplus value) = W/C being exploited

Dominant / Ruling Class Ideology

According to Marx, members of both social classes are largely UNAWARE of the true nature of their relationship with each other
Members of the R/C assume that their particular interests are those of society as a whole
Members of the W/C accept their subordinated position as natural – nothing they can do
Marx referred to this false and distorted set of beliefs as the dominant/Ruling Class Ideology reinforces, legitimises and justifies the social order
Marx also believed the major institutions reflected and were able to put this R/C ideology into practice… 8. Law protected the interests of the owning class more than it did of the workers 9. Religion acted as 'the opium of the people' – persuades workers to accept positions as just and natural. 'Drugs' them into false promises 10. Mass media owned by the R/C – only their interests are put forward and shown 11. The education system produces the kind of workers that capitalism requires
In this way, the workers were almost brainwashed into accepting their position
They failed to recognise they were being exploited and therefore did not rebel against the bourgeoisie
Marx called this lack of awareness of their own interests false consciousness

Revolution and Communism

However, Marx thought that one day workers would realise and become aware of their exploitation
Wealth and power would become ever more concentrated in the hands of the few and workers would become even poorer
This contrast between wealth and poverty and growing inequality would lead the working class to develop a class consciousness (an awareness of their real interests and their exploitation)
The population would become polarised, the working class would work together to strike, protest, demonstrate…
And overthrow the bourgeoisie via the revolution
This means of production would be put in the hands of the state and run in the interests of everyone
New type of society = communism, no exploitation, no class conflict and no classes at all.

A03 - Evaluation:

Strengths

Recognizes the importance of the economy and how economic changes can influence a wide range of other institutions 2008 global recession = austerity policies = link to education and families!
Its focus on private ownership of the means of production provides an explanation for the extreme inequalities in wealth, income and power that persist in society
It recognizes the importance of society's social structure and links this to the ideas, consciousness and behaviour of individuals and groups

Weaknesses

Not only is it economically deterministic, but it is deterministic generally speaking too. It sees individuals as simply passive products of the system, which socialises them into conformity. It doesn't consider individual choice, as social action theorists do.
It is a metanarrative that tries to explain everything from a single perspective. Postmodernists emphasise such metanarratives can no longer explain temporary societies, where social life is chaotic, values diverse and social structures fragmented.
It over-emphasizes the extent of conflict in society. Functionalists would argue society is primarily stable, and there must be shared values for life to be possible.

Neo-Marxism:

Neo-marxism refers to followers of Karl Marx who have taken his theories in new directions Humanistic Neo-Marxist
The main development of Marxist theory is his concept of hegemony - the means by which the ruling class maintains its dominance and control over the subject class
Hegemony is very similar to Marx's idea of R/C ideology and false class consciousness it consists of political and moral beliefs and values which justify and maintain R/C power

Gramsci (disagrees with Marx)

He thought that Marx was mistaken in giving such an over-riding importance to the economy, and he saw ideology and people's ideas as having relative autonomy from the economic base
Relative autonomy is the idea that the superstructure of society has some independence from the economic base, rather than being directly determined by it
Hegemony focuses more on the role of IDEAS rather than the economy determining people's behaviour
People's ideas are influenced by the R/C through institutions – doesn't have to be through force like Marx says, but by the spread of ideology and controlling the mind
He said people's ideas underpin the actions they choose to take. Ideas, choices, actions bring change – not just economic conditions like poverty, homelessness and unemployment
Leaning towards more of a social action theory, rather than structural

Dual Consciousness

Gramsci argued that R/C hegemony never completely blinds the proletariat to the reality of their situation
On one side, they see the world in terms of R/C hegemony
On the other side, they have glimpses of the true picture of society
As a result, members of the subject class have a dual consciousness = seeing two views of the world side by side

The Downfall of Capitalism

Marx sees economic crisis leading to revolution and the downfall of capitalism
Gramsci argues this can happen from a rejection of R/C hegemony + its replacement by a set of beliefs that provide a true picture of society
"elites of intellectuals of a new type which arise directly out of the masses, but remain in contact with them" They will present a set of beliefs in direct opposition to R/C hegemony = counter-hegemony

A03 - Evaluation:

Strengths

Tried to overcome some weaknesses of Marxism such as its economic determinism
The concept of hegemony recognizes the importance of people's ideas and actions
Paul Willis – W/C lads were 'partially penetrating' bourgeois ideology! (link to education
Leaning more towards a social action theory rather than a structural theory Weaknesses
Traditional Marxists have criticised Gramsci's separation of hegemony from the economy they argue that changes in society are ultimately based on economic changes
Gramsci under-emphasises the role of material factors like economic crisis and collapse, fear of poverty and unemployment
Marx DID recognize the importance of ideas and meanings when he discussed class consciousness!

Althusser - Structural Neo-Marxist

Althusser argued that the structure of capitalist society consists of not just the economic base and superstructure, but of three levels:

Economic Level – consisting of the economy and the production of material goods
Political Level (Repressive status apparatus controls the population through force – army, police, courts, prisons)
Ideological Level (Ideological state apparatus consists of institutions which spread the dominant ideology and justify the power of the dominant class – media, education, religion, families) Althusser agrees with Gramsci to an extent
All 3 levels ultimately preserve and justify the power of the dominant class, the political and ideological levels can affect society independently of the economy
Each level has relative autonomy + some independence from the economic base – distinguishing it from Traditional Marxism But Althusser is more in line with Traditional Marxism
Althusser still retains the structuralist emphasis of Traditional Marxism on the way social structures and the economy are still the key influences on people's ideas and behaviour
Disagrees with Gramsci's views that people have more free will and choice than Marx suggested and that political ideas and action are more important than economic factors in bringing about revolutionary change Links to Sociology Units (A02)
Education: the system acts as an ideological state apparatus that reinforces ideas of meritocracy upon its students. This helps to control behaviour by offering rewards for being a compliant and docile member of society.
Crime and Deviance: Additionally, the Repressive State Apparatus is used to control the masses by force, with the threat of military, legal or police involvement if the workers are not compliant.
Families: The ideological function of the family is to teach children that hierarchy is inevitable (parent power) and to teach capitalist values preparing them for the workforce When will there be a revolution according to Althusser
Socialism won't come through a change in consciousness (like Gramsci states) but through a crisis in capitalism leading to 'over-determination' (contradictions in the 3 levels) that leads to the collapse of the system overall Only when the 3 levels are in chaos will change occur

A03 - Evaluation:

Strengths

Identifies that institutions in the superstructure can impact the economy, not the other way round Weaknesses
Ignores the fact that it is the active struggles of the W/C that can change society -Other sociologists might suggest that Althusser's ideas are purely theoretical and lack empirical evidence

Althusser compared to Marx + Gramsci:

While the economy remains of overall importance, and all 3 levels ultimately preserve and justify the power of the dominant class, the political and ideological levels can affect society independently of the economy
Each level has relative autonomy + some independence from the economic base – distinguishing it from traditional Marxism
Despite this, Althusser still retains the structuralist emphasis of traditional Marxism on the way social structures and the economy are still the key influences on people's ideas and behaviour
Disagrees with Gramsci who argues that:
People have more free will and choice than Marx suggested (Althusser says they do not)
Political ideas and action are more important than economic factors in bringing about revolutionary change (this is not entirely true according to Althusser)

Unit 3 Feminism:

Walby's 6 structures of the patriarchy:

The household: women have primary responsibility for housework and childcare, limiting access to and promotion in paid work (triple shift, dual burden)
Paid work: women have lower-paid, lower status and more part-time and temporary jobs (gender pay gap)
The state: policies are primarily in men's interests (overgenerous maternity leave, assume man is the breadwinner)
Sexuality: different standards of behaviour are expected of men and women
Male Violence: male violence against women, like domestic violence (Dobash and Dobash - occurs because men wanted to reinforce their power/ they felt threatened) and rape, either condoned, ignored or inadequately tackled by the state
Cultural institutions: religion, media, education (gendered subjects, male figures) and other institutions all reinforce patriarchy.

5 strands of feminism

1)Liberal feminism:

Liberal feminists suggest that women's inequality arises primarily from factors like:

Sexist stereotyping, gender role socialisation, women primary responsibility for housework and childcare. =these generate a lack of opportunities for women and keep them in lower paid jobs.
Oakley (1972) : distinguishes the difference between sex and gender.
Sex- biological differences: hormones, reproduction, physical differences, fixed.
Gender – culturally constructed differences:
Masculine and feminine
Taught to the next generation through socialisation
Variable between culture and time periods
Liberal feminists argue that because gender is socially constructed, we can and have made improvements A02 solutions + solutions
Leading liberal feminists = Oakley (1974) and Sharpe (1994)
They believe that legal, economic and social equality for women will come through a gradual process of reform = will eventually lead to equality
Such reform measures include things like:
Better – high-quality and more affordable (even free) childcare
Equal pay – Equal Pay Act 1970
Anti-discrimination and equal opportunity laws – Sex discrimination Act 1975
Challenges to prejudices/sexist attitudes
Challenges to stereotyping in institutions like the family
Education Reform Act – GIST and WISE. A03 - Evaluation:

Strengths:

The fight of liberal feminists HAS led to legislation changes
Demonstrated that differences are not inborn but linked to socialisation Weaknesses:
Accused of having a rose-tinted view
Ignores the deeper rooted structures that contribute to women's inequality such as capitalism and patriarchy = Revolutionary change is needed

Radical feminism:

Radical feminists regard patriarchy as the most fundamental form of inequality

World is divided into two 'sex classes' – men dominating women in all areas + reaping the benefits
Sexual politics – power struggles – personal and sexual
Patriarchal power inequalities = public and private
Firestone and Ortner = women's subordination due to biology (pregnancy and childbirth) = makes them dependent and vulnerable A02 - Solutions + Synoptic links:
Propose the complete destruction of patriarchy,
Childbirth to be carried out independently of men
Women to begin to free themselves from oppression – live their lives separately from men through separatism (living apart) and lesbianism Germaine Greer (2000) = argues for the creation of all-female or 'matrifocal' households as an alternative to the heterosexual family

Political Lesbianism = 'sleeping with the enemy' – needs to stop!

Domestic Violence
Dual Burden/Triple Shift A03 Evaluation:

Strengths:

Brings the attention of the 'personal is political' revealed how intimate relationships involve domination Weaknesses:
Intersectional feminists would argue radical feminism assumes all women share common interests – not all women are the same.
Counter evaluation: Millett argues that the patriarchy was the first and is the most fundamental form of inequality, she argued that regardless of class all women are expected to be subservient to men.
Liberal feminists would argue that gradual reform has occurred and has improved women's opportunities
Marxists feminists would argue that it is capitalism, not patriarchy, which oppresses women
Escaping patriarchy isn't challenging it

Marxist feminists:

Gender inequality arises primarily from the nature of capitalist society, not just patriarchy alone

Capitalism intensifies patriarchal inequalities in pursuit of its own interest:
Women are a source of cheap, exploitable labour (dependent on men)
Women are a reserve army of labour (in and out of jobs when needed)
Women reproduce the labour force (socialisation)
Women's expressive role is to absorb men's anger at their exploitation at work – Ansley called women's role the 'takers of shit' – keeps capitalism stable
W/C women suffer the most AO2 - Solutions + Synoptic links:
Improving the position of women involves a fundamental challenge to capitalism and class inequality + patriarchy which is used to support it
Capitalism is the root cause of women's oppression = not men (as radical feminists suggest)

= not outdated attitudes / stereotypes etc (as liberal feminists suggest)

'Takers of Shit' – Fran Ainsley

Ideology of the idealised 'cereal packet' family is patriarchal and harmful to all women – mostly W/C though

A03 Evaluation:

Strengths:

Gives a greater understanding of women's exploitation and is essential to understand the role of women in a capitalist society Weaknesses:
Marxist feminists don't explain that patriarchy has existed in all known societies – not just capitalist societies
It is men, not just capitalism, who benefit from women's subordination = they are the ones who discriminate, who commit sexual + physical violence against women etc.

Dual System Feminists:

Dual system feminists blend Marxist and radical feminist theories
Capitalism and patriarchy are seen as 2 (dual) separate systems that interact with and reinforce one another in the form of 'patriarchal capitalism'
This generates dual roles for women – housewife and paid work
Not only are they subordinate to men, but to capitalism too (Walby) Other factors are important too – social class + ethnic inequalities

A02 - Solutions:

Remove the twin structures of patriarchy and capitalism is key
But they also support reform measures like liberal feminists suggest = tackling the patriarchal nature of male/female relations in the private sphere of the home and the family

= tackling the patriarchal/capitalist exploitation of women in public spheres, such as the labour market, business, government and the media

A03 Evaluation:

Weaknesses:

Criticised for its primarily theoretical approach
Doesn't offer many/different solutions to women's subordination that have been offered already

Intersectional feminists:

Originated from black feminism
Accuse the other feminisms of 'essentialism' – they assume all women have the same 'essence' of what it is to be a woman
Suggest that other variants of feminism (especially in 60s and 70s) viewed women's subordination through the eyes of white M/C women
Subordination differs between social groups – especially in postmodern societies
These intensify when they combine, overlap or intersect
Different conceptions of what oppression is…e.g. religion = so we can't use other feminisms to explain all women's oppression

A03 Evaluation:

Strength

Recognises that generalised feminist theories do not take into account diversity and different experiences of women Criticisms:
By emphasising the differences between women, intersectional feminism deflects attention away from those problems shared by all women (patriarchy!)
Having so many sub groups weakens the feminist movement.

Walby's 6 Structures of Patriarchy

The Household:

Women often bear the primary responsibility for housework and childcare, which limits their opportunities and advancement in paid work. This concept is related to the "triple shift" and "dual burden" where women juggle housework, paid work, and emotional labour.

Paid Work:

Women are more likely to have lower-paid, lower-status, part-time, or temporary jobs. This contributes to the gender pay gap.

The State:

Government policies often favour men. Examples include overgenerous maternity leave, which can reinforce the idea that men are the main breadwinners.

Sexuality:

Society imposes different standards of behaviour for men and women, often reinforcing traditional gender roles.

Male Violence:

Male violence against women, such as domestic violence (e.g., Dobash and Dobash), is often condoned, ignored, or inadequately addressed by the state. This violence is used by men to maintain power.

Cultural Institutions:

Institutions like religion, media, and education reinforce patriarchal values by promoting gendered subjects and male-dominated figures.

5 Strands of Feminism

Liberal Feminism: Key Ideas:

Women's inequality arises from sexist stereotypes, gender role socialization, and women's primary responsibility for housework and childcare.
Differences between sex (biological) and gender (cultural and socially constructed) are crucial, with gender roles being learned and variable over time and across cultures. Solutions:
Legal and social reforms, such as the Equal Pay Act (1970), Sex Discrimination Act (1975), and promoting equal opportunities through educational programs like GIST and WISE. Evaluation:
Strengths: Led to significant legislative changes and demonstrated that differences are socially constructed.
Weaknesses: Accused of being overly optimistic, ignoring deeper issues like capitalism and patriarchy, which may require revolutionary change.

Radical Feminism: Key Ideas:

Patriarchy is the most fundamental form of inequality, dividing the world into two "sex classes" where men dominate women in all areas.
Patriarchal power inequalities are present in both public and private life. Solutions:
Advocates for the complete destruction of patriarchy, separatism (living apart from men), and political lesbianism (rejecting relationships with men).
Germaine Greer (2000) suggests creating all-female households as an alternative to the traditional family. Evaluation:
Strengths: Highlighted the idea that "the personal is political" and brought attention to domination in intimate relationships.
Weaknesses: Criticized for assuming all women share common interests, and for overlooking differences between women (intersectionality). Other feminists argue that gradual reform (liberal) or capitalism (Marxist) is more relevant to women's oppression.

Marxist Feminism: Key Ideas:

Gender inequality is primarily a result of capitalist society, where women are exploited for cheap labor, serve as a reserve army of labor, and reproduce the labor force.
Women also absorb men's frustration with capitalist exploitation, a role described by Ansley as the "takers of shit." Solutions:
Overcoming women's oppression requires challenging both capitalism and patriarchy. Evaluation:
Strengths: Offers a deep understanding of women's exploitation within a capitalist framework.
Weaknesses: Fails to explain patriarchy in non-capitalist societies and overlooks the role men play in perpetuating women's oppression beyond capitalism.

Dual System Feminism: Key Ideas:

Combines Marxist and radical feminist theories, viewing capitalism and patriarchy as two separate but interacting systems (patriarchal capitalism) that subjugate women. Solutions:
Advocates for the removal of both patriarchy and capitalism, alongside reform measures similar to those proposed by liberal feminists. Evaluation:
Weaknesses: Criticized for being too theoretical and not offering new or practical solutions to women's subordination.

Intersectional Feminism: Key Ideas:

Emerged from black feminism, challenging the idea that all women share the same experiences of oppression.
Argues that race, class, and other factors intersect with gender, creating different experiences of subordination. Evaluation:
Strengths: Recognizes the diversity of women's experiences and the limitations of generalizing feminist theories.
Weaknesses: Criticized for potentially dividing the feminist movement by focusing too much on differences rather than shared struggles against patriarchy.

Structural approaches Simplified Revision Notes for A-Level OCR Sociology

Structural approaches