Towards Power and Apartheid (Grade 11 NSC Matric History): Revision Notes
Towards Power and Apartheid
How Afrikaner leaders used the idea of Volk
Afrikaner leaders drew heavily on the ideas of Abraham Kuyper, a Dutch politician and theologian, to develop their concept of Volk. Kuyper believed that God had authority over separate areas of creation, and that different "spheres" needed to be protected from ideas like equality and freedom that came from the French Revolution. Afrikaner leaders saw these democratic ideas as challenging God's authority.
Paul Kruger, president of the Transvaal Republic and founding member of the Dutch Reformed Church, became a key figure in applying these ideas. He viewed the history of Afrikaners in South Africa as "sacred history", with the Volk as God's chosen people. Kruger compared the Great Trek to the biblical Exodus - a journey from British rule in the Cape to the "Promised Land" of the Boer Republics.
Kuyper's theological ideas provided the intellectual foundation for Afrikaner nationalism, offering a religious justification for racial separation that would later become central to apartheid ideology.
Definition of Volk
The Afrikaner understanding of Volk became highly exclusive and racially defined. According to this ideology:
- Volk meant only white South African Afrikaners who had the God-given right to the land of South Africa
- Black people were considered separate nations who should live in their own tribal areas
- This was based on the idea that God had created different nations, each with a divine right to exist as separate entities
The Volk concept was fundamentally exclusionary and racist. It denied the humanity and citizenship rights of the majority of South Africa's population while claiming divine approval for white minority rule. This ideology would become the cornerstone of apartheid policy.
Afrikaner theologians used Kuyper's ideas to justify their refusal to coexist with other ethnic groups as equals. They argued that Afrikaners were "British-designed" South Africans who deserved to remain separate and rule over surrounding black nations who were not part of the Volk.
Volk and its relationship to class and race
Education and labour policies
The exclusive definition of Volk had serious consequences for South African society. Afrikaner nationalism used education as a tool to create and maintain class divisions based on race:
- Missionary education for black people created competition with poor white Afrikaners for jobs
- Economic depression led to increased white Afrikaner unemployment, intensifying job competition
- Affirmative action policies excluded blacks from white labour markets, promoting white (especially Afrikaner) employment opportunities
The development of educational policies followed a clear progression:
The Evolution of Racialised Education Policy:
Step 1: The Institute for Christian National Education was formed by the Broederbond and Dutch Reformed Church
Step 2: In 1939, Afrikaner nationalists created an educational manifesto developing Christian National Education (CNE)
Step 3: The manifesto called for separate schools for each of South Africa's population groups
Step 4: After the National Party's 1948 election victory, they implemented CNE ideology fully
Step 5: This created a segregated education system culminating in Bantu education
The ultimate result was Bantu education - a system specifically designed to limit black people's opportunities. This education system was deliberately created to teach black people to become "hewers of wood and drawers of water" for the white-controlled economy, completely disregarding individual abilities and aspirations.
The role of religion
The Dutch Reformed Church (DRC) played a crucial role in justifying Afrikaner nationalism through religious arguments.
Initially, during the 19th century, the DRC held a more practical view of racial segregation. They saw it as a harmonious way to govern a diverse country rather than as an ideological necessity.
However, after the economic depression of the early 20th century, the church's attitude changed significantly:
- A new group of poor whites, mostly Afrikaners, emerged
- The church became more involved in political matters
- By 1939, church leaders were actively supporting segregation policies
The DRC's official position on segregation in 1939 reveals how religious institutions provided moral justification for apartheid:
"The policy of segregation as advocated by the Afrikaner and his church is the holy calling of the Church to see to the thousands of poor whites in the cities who fight a losing battle in the present economic world... The application of segregation will furthermore lead to the creation of separate healthy cities for the non-whites where they will be in a position to develop along their own lines, establish their own institutions and later on govern themselves under the guardianship of the whites."
This religious backing was essential because:
- The Afrikaner state was seen as representing Christian civilisation
- This gave Afrikaners a "divine right" to remain separate and rule over black nations
- The DRC had historically provided social security to remote Afrikaner farmers
- Later, it created communities for thousands of displaced poor Afrikaners moving to cities
- The church reinforced traditional family values, encouraging women to be "volksmoeders" (mothers of the nation) who would raise many Afrikaner children as nationalists
The Great Trek Centenary Celebration of 1938
A pivotal moment in uniting Afrikaner nationalism occurred with the "Eeufees" (Centenary) Celebration of the Great Trek in 1938. This was the largest and most powerful cultural event that shaped Afrikaner nationalist ideology.
The celebration included impressive symbolic elements:
- Nine wagons were built and named after Voortrekker heroes
- These wagons travelled from Cape Town to Pretoria using different routes
- Men grew beards and women wore traditional Voortrekker dresses
- Towns renamed their streets after Voortrekker leaders
- Wagons became the social centre of each town's activities
- Monuments were built along the entire route
On 16 December 1838 (the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Blood River), wagons arrived at a gathering of 100,000 people on Monument Koppie in Pretoria, where the foundation stone of the Voortrekker Monument was laid.
The 1938 celebration was a masterpiece of nationalist propaganda. It successfully transformed historical events into a unifying mythology that gave Afrikaners a shared identity and sense of destiny. The media coverage created a romanticised version of the Great Trek that portrayed it as a divinely-blessed united movement of chosen people escaping foreign oppression to find freedom in the dangerous interior.
Nationalists portrayed this as an "awakening" of the long-oppressed Afrikaner nation on its path towards freedom.
Afrikaner nationalism in power - the 1940s
Political context
By 1948, the National Party under DF Malan had gained support from several key groups:
- Middle-class Afrikaners
- Poor Afrikaner workers
- Small-scale and commercial farmers
These groups felt threatened by developments in the 1940s, particularly the growth of a large and increasingly organised black working class.
Racist rhetoric
The National Party used powerful emotional language to win support:
- They spoke of "swart gevaar" (black danger) and "oorstroming" (flooding) of blacks into cities
- This appealed to white workers who feared competition from black workers
- White farmers worried about losing labour as Africans moved to cities
- White businessmen were concerned about economic changes
The National Party's racist rhetoric was designed to create fear and unite different white groups around a common perceived threat. This emotional manipulation proved highly effective in mobilising white voters against black advancement.
The new policy of apartheid
The National Party's apartheid policy promised to:
- Defend the interests of all these threatened white groups
- Suppress black resistance to white rule
- Intensify control and exploitation of black labour
The crucial 1948 election
The election campaign revealed stark differences between the main parties:
United Party (Prime Minister Smuts):
- Aimed to neutralise African resistance by accommodating some moderate demands
- Offered rational appeals for some land and city sharing that would allow whites and blacks to live in peace (but with blacks still subordinated)
- Their appeals to "South Africanism" were not strong enough to counter the emotional appeal of Afrikaner nationalism
National Party (Malan):
- Attacked United Party policies directly
- Made emotional appeals claiming white Afrikaners would be murdered by blacks or driven out of the country if they didn't vote for the National Party
The 1948 election was a turning point in South African history. Despite winning only a narrow victory, the National Party's emotional appeals to racial fear proved more powerful than the United Party's rational arguments for gradual reform.
The National Party's victory, though by a narrow margin, gave them the political power to implement their vision. They could now:
- Use state control to promote Afrikaner nationalism
- Take control of schools and other state institutions
- Use economic resources to benefit Afrikaner businesses
- Suppress demands from other social classes, including black peasants, workers, and the black middle class
The success of apartheid policies in crushing black resistance and creating opportunities for white businesses and workers eventually won support from other white groups, who threw their backing behind the apartheid government.
Afrikaner nationalism today
After 40 years of nationalist rule, significant changes occurred:
- Afrikaner capitalists and professionals achieved equality with foreign capital
- Afrikaner culture and language became firmly established
In today's democratic South Africa:
- The ideology of separate Afrikaner nationalism offers little to most Afrikaners
- However, small pockets of extreme, exclusive Afrikaner nationalism still exist (such as in Orania)
- Afrikaans literature and art have largely broken free from old nationalist restrictions
The legacy of Afrikaner nationalism remains complex in modern South Africa. While the political movement has lost its power, its cultural and linguistic achievements continue, and some communities still maintain separatist ideologies.
Key Points to Remember:
-
Volk was defined as an exclusive racial and religious identity that justified Afrikaner political dominance over other groups in South Africa
-
Education became a crucial tool for implementing racial hierarchy, from Christian National Education to the deliberately limiting Bantu education system
-
The Dutch Reformed Church provided religious justification for apartheid by presenting segregation as God's will and Afrikaners' divine calling
-
The 1938 Great Trek Centenary Celebration successfully united Afrikaners around a shared historical narrative and national identity
-
The National Party's 1948 election victory was achieved through emotional racist appeals that promised to protect white interests and led directly to the implementation of apartheid as official government policy