Foreign Policy (Grade 12 NSC Matric History): Revision Notes
Foreign Policy
China's relationships with the superpowers
Relations with the USSR
During the early Cold War period, Mao Zedong sought to establish strong ties with Stalin and the Soviet Union through the COMINTERN (Communist International). This relationship became formalised in February 1950 when both nations signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship. This agreement granted China valuable railway rights in northern regions and initiated joint industrial development projects between the two communist powers.
Stalin remained suspicious of Mao's growing influence within the communist movement and attempted to restrict his power. The Soviet leader prioritised national interests over ideological solidarity, which created underlying tensions in the relationship. These tensions would eventually lead to a complete breakdown in Sino-Soviet relations.
Relations with the USA
China's relationship with the United States during the early Cold War was characterised by direct military confrontation. When North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950 with Soviet backing, the United States responded by using United Nations forces to launch a counter-offensive. Mao viewed this American intervention as a threat to Chinese security and sent over one million troops to fight in Korea, seeking to gain prestige and demonstrate Chinese power.
The human cost of this intervention was enormous - approximately 900,000 Chinese soldiers died in the Korean conflict. This massive loss of life caused considerable suffering within China, and Mao blamed the United States for these casualties.
Consequently, China supported Ho Chi Minh's communist forces against American troops during the Vietnam War, viewing this as an opportunity to oppose American influence in Asia.
The Sino-Soviet split
The relationship between China and the Soviet Union deteriorated significantly due to fundamental ideological differences between Mao Zedong and Nikita Khrushchev.
Mao's initial economic policies had created social inequality and class divisions within Chinese society. To address these problems, he returned to traditional Marxist principles, implementing collective ownership and state control (known as Maoism) whilst mobilising the peasantry for economic development.
In contrast, Khrushchev pursued de-Stalinisation policies after Stalin's death, denouncing Stalin's oppressive methods and allowing managers greater freedom to use capitalist techniques for economic growth. This approach included permitting more intellectual freedom and open debate, which Mao viewed as a serious threat to communist principles in China.
Several factors contributed to the complete breakdown of Sino-Soviet relations:
- Territorial disputes across Asia created additional tensions, particularly in Vietnam, Korea, and Cambodia
- Mao challenged the Soviet Union's leadership within the global communist movement
- Khrushchev believed he could control and direct Chinese policy
- Nuclear weapons development became a major source of conflict
Initially, the Soviet Union provided advisors and technicians to help China develop atomic weapons. However, in 1959, the USSR withdrew all technical support and advisors due to deteriorating relations. China responded by developing its own atomic bomb independently, successfully testing it in 1964. Paradoxically, despite their bitter rivalry, both nations continued to support Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.
China's regional relationships in Asia
Tibet
China's approach to Tibet demonstrated its willingness to use military force to extend territorial control. In 1950, the Red Army occupied Tibet and forced the Dalai Lama to sign a treaty recognising Chinese authority. When Tibetans launched an uprising against Chinese rule in 1959, it was brutally suppressed.
Following the successful suppression of resistance, Tibet was formally incorporated into China as an autonomous region. The Chinese government implemented harsh policies against Tibetan culture and religion, destroying more than 6,000 monasteries and killing thousands of monks and nuns. This systematic destruction of Tibetan institutions represented a clear attempt to eliminate potential sources of opposition to Chinese rule.
Vietnam
China's relationship with Vietnam exemplified its efforts to spread communist ideology throughout Southeast Asia. In 1945, Mao pressured the revolutionary leader Ho Chi Minh to implement Maoist principles in North Vietnam. Throughout the 1960s, China remained a close ally of the communist forces fighting against American intervention in the Vietnam War.
However, this alliance deteriorated during the 1970s when China began seizing oil resources in the Gulf of Tonkin. The relationship reached its lowest point when Vietnam assisted in overthrowing China's ally, the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia. This shift demonstrated how national interests could override ideological solidarity even between communist nations.
India
The relationship between China and India involved both diplomatic recognition and territorial conflicts. India demonstrated early support for the People's Republic by recognising the communist government in 1949, even though this created tensions with other democratic nations.
However, border disputes led to serious military conflict. China was dissatisfied with the boundary established by Britain between the two countries. In 1962, China launched attacks against India to demonstrate its military strength and resolve territorial disputes in its favour. Interestingly, both nations later made territorial concessions: China recognised Indian sovereignty over Sikkim, whilst India acknowledged Chinese control over Tibet.
Taiwan
The Chinese Civil War created a complex situation regarding Taiwan that had significant international implications. In 1949, Chiang Kai-shek's nationalist forces fled to Taiwan and established the Republic of China as a rival government. This resulted in a formal state of war between the two Chinas that lasted until 1972.
The United States actively supported Taiwan during this period, particularly during the Korean War when American backing helped protect the island from potential Chinese invasion. However, China achieved a major diplomatic victory in 1971 when Mao successfully persuaded the United Nations to grant the People's Republic of China permanent membership on the Security Council, replacing Taiwan's representation.
Debate: Was China a superpower when Mao died in 1976?
This question remains contentious among historians, with compelling arguments on both sides:
Arguments supporting superpower status:
- China possessed an exceptionally large territory covering vast areas of Asia
- The nation had a massive population providing enormous human resources
- China wielded significant military, political, economic and cultural influence across Asia and beyond
- The country had developed nuclear weapons and maintained large armed forces
Arguments against superpower status:
- Economic destruction caused by Mao's policies had severely weakened the nation
- Cultural repression and political instability limited China's soft power
- China's military arsenal remained significantly weaker than that of the United States or Soviet Union
- The country lacked the global reach and technological sophistication of true superpowers
China's rapprochement with the USA after 1970
China's decision to improve relations with the United States represented a major strategic shift driven by two primary considerations:
- Countering Soviet pressure: China needed to balance against increasing Soviet political and military pressure throughout Asia
- Enhancing international status: Improved American relations would increase China's stature as a leading power in global affairs
Evidence of improved relations:
The transformation in US-China relations produced several concrete developments. The United Nations withdrew its support for Taiwan's membership on the Security Council, recognising the People's Republic instead. President Nixon's historic visit to China in 1972 marked a watershed moment in the relationship. American technical experts and cultural figures began visiting China, whilst some Western literature was permitted entry into the country, although distribution remained limited.
Economic liberalisation after Mao's death
Economic liberalisation: In this context it refers to the significant changes implemented after Mao's death that represented a departure from strict communist economic principles. These reforms introduced market mechanisms whilst maintaining overall state control.
Market socialism within China
The new leadership implemented sweeping economic reforms that fundamentally altered Chinese society:
- Agricultural reform: State-controlled collective farms were divided into individual family units, allowing peasants greater autonomy over production decisions
- Industrial development: Private citizens received encouragement to establish light manufacturing and consumer goods industries
- Trade liberalisation: The government adopted an "open door policy" with Western nations to promote international trade and investment
- Planning reform: Central economic planning and rigid price controls were abolished
- Privatisation: Many inefficient state-owned enterprises were transferred to private ownership
Results of economic liberalisation
These reforms produced dramatic social and economic changes within China. A new prosperous middle class emerged in urban areas, whilst successful peasant farmers in rural regions achieved previously unimaginable wealth. China's economy experienced phenomenal growth rates that transformed the country's international position.
However, these policies also created significant social problems. Poorer farmers found themselves forced off their land as wealthier individuals consolidated agricultural holdings. Urban unemployment increased substantially as rural populations migrated to cities seeking better opportunities. Food prices rose, creating hardship for many families.
Politically, China remained authoritarian despite economic liberalisation. The government continued to suppress pro-democratic movements harshly, demonstrating that economic reform did not necessarily lead to political democratisation.
Impact on the global community
China's economic transformation had far-reaching international consequences:
Western nations initially welcomed Chinese economic liberalisation because it created investment opportunities. Friendly policies and low labour costs attracted substantial Western investment to China. However, the influx of capital and technology led to massive productivity growth that eventually made Western nations wary of Chinese competition.
African countries experienced increased Chinese engagement as China expanded its interests across the continent and within BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa). China demonstrated particular interest in Africa's abundant raw materials and agricultural products. The Chinese market provided enormous opportunities for commodities and resources, though this often led to agreements with authoritarian regimes. China established the China-Africa Forum to enhance its influence among African leaders.
Developing economies worldwide received Chinese investment as China extended infrastructure development and market access globally. This economic engagement significantly enhanced China's international influence and created new patterns of global trade and development.
Key Points to Remember:
- China's foreign policy evolved from close Soviet alliance to strategic rivalry and eventual US rapprochement by the 1970s
- The Sino-Soviet split resulted from ideological differences between Maoism and de-Stalinisation, plus territorial and nuclear disputes
- China used military force effectively in regional conflicts (Tibet, Korea, India) but also pursued diplomatic solutions when beneficial
- The Korean War cost approximately 900,000 Chinese lives and shaped China's anti-American stance for decades
- Economic liberalisation after 1976 transformed China from a communist command economy to market socialism, creating prosperity but also inequality and global economic competition