The Bolshevik Consolidation of Power (HSC SSCE Modern History): Revision Notes

The Bolshevik Consolidation of Power

Introduction

Following the February Revolution of 1917, Russia experienced a period of dual power. The Provisional Government attempted to maintain order while the Petrograd Soviet represented workers and soldiers. This unstable situation allowed the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, to seize power in October 1917 and establish a one-party communist state. However, the new regime faced enormous challenges in consolidating its authority.

Bolshevik ideology

The ideological foundations of Bolshevism originated from Karl Marx's theories about class struggle and revolution. Marx argued that the working class (proletariat) was being exploited by the owners of capital (bourgeoisie) and would eventually rise up in violent revolution. After victory, workers would control the means of production and wealth would be shared equally. Eventually, the state itself would disappear.

Key terms:

• Proletariat: The working class who do not own any means of production in the economy
• Bourgeoisie: The middle class who control the means of production in the economy

Lenin's adaptation of Marxism

Lenin modified Marx's theories to fit Russian conditions. Unlike Marx, who believed revolution would occur in industrialized nations like England or Germany, Lenin was convinced that revolution could succeed in Russia despite its peasant majority (80% of the population).

In his 1917 work State and Revolution, written while hiding in Finland, Lenin outlined key Bolshevik tactics:

• Eliminating the old bureaucracy and state institutions
• Destroying bourgeois parliamentarianism
• Using state repression during the transitional period
• Eventually replacing the party-state with the 'dictatorship of the proletariat'
• Recognizing the need for cooperation between workers and peasants

Lenin's approach was pragmatic. He believed that once a disciplined revolutionary party had been formed to lead the masses, parliamentary democracy would become unnecessary. The state would be needed temporarily to maintain order and discipline before eventually withering away.

Core principles of Bolshevik consolidation

The Bolsheviks pursued three main aims when consolidating power:

1. Internationalism of communism: Spreading communist revolution globally to protect the new Soviet government
2. Economic transformation: Placing all businesses in the hands of industrial workers, with the state directing labour and production
3. Coercive apparatus: Using force and violence against internal enemies and external powers who threatened the revolution

The October Coup 1917

Russian historians call this event the October Revolution, though Western calendars record it as occurring in early November. The Bolshevik Central Committee, under Lenin's leadership, voted on 23 October 1917 to seize power. The detailed planning was carried out by Leon Trotsky and the Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet.

Key terms:

• October Revolution: The Bolshevik seizure of power from the Provisional Government in 1917
• Red Guards: Armed Bolshevik soldiers who carried out the revolution
• Provisional Government: The democratic parliamentary body that governed Russia from March 1917 after the Tsar's abdication
• Petrograd Soviet: A council representing the city's workers and soldiers, established after the February Revolution

Timeline of the October Coup

24 October (6 November): During the night, Red Guards began occupying key positions throughout Petrograd, including the telephone exchange, railway stations and government buildings.

25 October (7 November):

• Alexander Kerensky, head of the Provisional Government, fled the city to raise loyal troops
• By evening, when the All-Russian Congress of Soviets met, Red Guards controlled most of Petrograd
• Lenin returned from exile

26 October (8 November):

• Early morning: Red Guards entered the Winter Palace and arrested the Provisional Government
• Eighteen hours after seizing power, Lenin issued two crucial decrees:
  • Decree on Peace: Called for immediate ceasefire and peace treaty
  • Decree on Land: Abolished private land ownership

27 October (9 November): The Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets debated the legitimacy of the Bolshevik seizure of power. Despite condemnation from Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries, the Bolsheviks were outnumbered and Lenin received enthusiastic support.

3 November (16 November): Bolsheviks gained control of Moscow after fierce fighting.

Key figures in the October Coup

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870-1924)

Lenin (born Vladimir Ulyanov) became a revolutionary after his older brother was executed for attempting to assassinate Tsar Alexander III. He spent most of his adult life in exile, developing revolutionary theory. After the February Revolution, Germany allowed him to travel through their territory in a sealed train to return to Russia. He led the Bolsheviks to power and served as Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) from 1917 until his death in 1924.

Leon Trotsky

Trotsky joined the Bolsheviks in 1917 and became President of the Petrograd Soviet. While Lenin was in hiding, Trotsky organized the practical details of the October Coup. He persuaded the garrison of the Peter and Paul Fortress to hand over weapons to the Red Guards and coordinated the seizure of government buildings from his headquarters in the Smolny Institute.

The early Soviet Government

Few expected the Bolsheviks to remain in power long, given the challenges they faced. By the end of 1917, they controlled only a small portion of Russia, including Petrograd and Moscow. They had established a government structure with:

• Sovnarkom (Council of People's Commissars): The cabinet, led by Lenin
• Commissars: Government ministers (e.g., Trotsky was Commissar of Foreign Affairs)
• Coalition: Initially included left-wing Socialist Revolutionaries (though Lenin planned to eliminate them)

Key term:

• Sovnarkom: The Council of People's Commissars, which served as the cabinet of the USSR

Contradictory approaches to governance

The Bolsheviks faced two seemingly contradictory responses to concerns about their survival:

1. They promoted the idea that their actions would inspire a global socialist revolution bringing Western support
2. They maintained faith in the heroic power of individuals to create change

Early libertarian measures

The first acts of the Soviet Government reflected democratic, libertarian ideals:

Decree on Peace (26 October 1917)

• Proclaimed a new approach to international affairs
• Rejected private diplomacy
• Called for peace without annexations or indemnities

Decree on Land (26 October 1917)

• Removed all land from the gentry without compensation
• Transferred land to peasant committees and the Soviet state

Decree on Workers' Control (November 1917)

• Allowed workers to supervise their own managers
• Gave industrial workers direct participation in factory management

Additional democratic reforms:

• National minorities received the right to complete self-determination
• All existing courts were dismissed and new judges were to be elected
• Administrative system was democratized by recruiting thousands of soldiers and workers into the bureaucracy

Early authoritarian measures

However, authoritarian policies quickly appeared alongside these libertarian reforms:

Press Law (27 October 1917)

• Closed most 'bourgeois' newspapers
• Even shut down some socialist papers
• Severely restricted freedom of the press

CHEKA established (5 December 1917)

• Public commission to fight counter-revolution and sabotage
• Controlled internal dissent
• Suppressed economic crime
• Crushed any opposition to Soviet power
• Headed by Felix Dzerzhinsky

Key term:

• CHEKA: The original name of the Communist Secret Police in Russia

Imprisonment and threats

• Opponents of the regime were arrested
• Trotsky and other leaders warned of increasing threats against enemies
• Violence against dissent became normalized

Centralization of economic control

• Dramatic moves to centralize industrial control
• Greater discipline imposed on industry and labour
• State direction of the declining economy

Disbanding of Constituent Assembly (5 January 1918)

• The democratically elected parliament was shut down
• Bolsheviks refused to relinquish power
• Ended hopes for multi-party democracy

Key term:

• Constituent Assembly: Democratically elected parliament whose job was to draft a new republican constitution for Russia after the Tsar's abdication

Felix Dzerzhinsky (1877-1926)

Dzerzhinsky was a fanatical Polish communist who spent 15 years in Tsarist prisons. Lenin appointed him to head the CHEKA. He was completely ruthless, stating: "We don't want justice, we want to settle accounts."

In his first address as Chief of the Secret Police in 1917, Dzerzhinsky declared:

This is no time for speechmaking. Our revolution is in serious danger... Do not think that I am on the lookout for forms of revolutionary justice. We have no need for justice now. Now we have need of a battle to the death!

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

One of the Bolsheviks' main promises was ending Russia's involvement in World War I. The Decree on Peace in 1917 started this process, but the formal peace treaty with Germany wasn't signed until March 1918.

Terms of the treaty

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk imposed harsh conditions on Russia:

Territorial losses:

• Russia surrendered Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia
• Lost 62 million people (significant portion of population)
• Lost 32% of arable land
• Lost 25% of industry
• Lost 90% of coal mines

Economic obligations:

• Soviet Government had to honour economic debts to the Central Powers
• Plus interest on those debts

Key term:

• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: The peace treaty signed with Germany on 3 March 1918. The terms were even harsher than those Germany had offered before, but the treaty needed to be signed to ensure the Bolsheviks' promise of peace.

Significance of the treaty

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk had profound consequences:

Destroyed Bolshevik-Socialist Revolutionary relationship

• The treaty broke the coalition between Bolsheviks and left-wing Socialist Revolutionaries
• Became a catalyst for civil war in Russia
• Counter-revolutionary forces believed Russia's sovereignty was threatened

Sparked criticism of Bolsheviks

• The treaty removed the German threat
• However, Bolsheviks were criticized for handing vast territories and millions of people to the enemy
• Anti-German and anti-Bolshevik feeling ran high

Led to Allied intervention

• Western Allies were still fighting World War I against Germany
• They viewed the Bolshevik peace as betrayal
• This prompted Allied military intervention against the Bolsheviks

Violence against Bolsheviks

• In July 1918, the German Ambassador to Russia was assassinated by left-wing Social Revolutionaries
• Street fighting broke out between disgruntled workers and Red Army squads
• The treaty's legacy haunted the Bolsheviks for years

As historian J. Bradley noted: "It was impossible to forget the terrible losses inflicted on Russia in the war and at Brest-Litovsk."

The Russian Civil War

The Civil War began in spring 1918 and lasted until the end of 1920. This was a multi-sided conflict that nearly destroyed the Bolshevik regime.

Key term:

• Red Army: The military force of the Soviet Union formed in 1918 to defend the new regime, especially against White Armies during the Civil War

Who were the White Armies?

The Bolsheviks faced opposition from various forces, most notably the White Armies organized by former Tsarist military officers:

Major White Army forces:

1. The Volunteer Army (South)
   • Led by General Anton Denikin
   • Also briefly commanded by General Kornilov
2. Admiral Alexander Kolchak's Army (Siberia)
   • Formed in November 1918
   • Based in eastern Russia
3. General Nikolai Yudenich's Force (Estonia)
   • Created fighting force from Baltic region
4. General Miller's Army (North-west Russia)
   • Led forces from the Arctic region

By autumn 1919, a White victory seemed possible.

Key term:

• White Armies: Forces that fought against the Bolshevik Red Army during the Civil War

Other opposition forces

Beyond the White Armies, the Bolsheviks faced:

Political opposition:

• Mensheviks
• Liberal Cadets
• Left Socialist Revolutionaries (who rebelled in spring 1918)
• These groups formed anti-Communist governments in various cities

Regional forces:

• Local Cossacks established anti-communist governments in southern Russia
• Sometimes these forces also opposed White Armies

Independence movements:

• Various regions sought independence from Russian control
• Large parts of the former Russian Empire were lost

Foreign intervention:

• Dozens of nations sent troops and money to oppose the Bolsheviks
• German troops occupied western territory under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Key term:

• Cossacks: A group of people in Russia with a history of fighting and bravery from the region on the Don River (near the Black Sea)

How the Bolsheviks won the Civil War

Despite facing overwhelming opposition, the Bolsheviks emerged victorious. Several factors explain their success:

1. Divided opposition

The White forces failed to form a coordinated, united opposition. They were:

• Politically divided (ranging from moderate socialists to ardent monarchists)
• Militarily fragmented (no central command structure)
• Unable to cooperate effectively with each other
• Former Tsarist officers often alienated potential supporters

2. Logistical advantages

The Communists controlled the Russian heartland, which provided:

• Control of railways throughout the war
• Shorter supply lines
• Central position (interior lines of communication)
• Access to major population centers

The White forces were scattered around the peripheries, making coordination difficult.

3. Superior organization

The Soviet Government proved more efficient at organizing resources through War Communism:

• Nationalized all industries
• Instituted forced labour
• Applied strict labour discipline
• Systematically requisitioned grain to feed soldiers and urban workers
• Created a functioning state apparatus

4. Effective military leadership

Leon Trotsky transformed the Red Army into an effective fighting force. Traveling on his personal armoured train, he appeared everywhere, inspiring troops and coordinating strategy.

5. Better propaganda

The Bolsheviks effectively communicated their message:

• Warned that White victory would restore capitalists and landlords
• This message resonated with the majority of the population
• The Whites inadvertently supported this narrative (their leaders were former Tsarist officers and landowners)
• White forces sometimes returned expropriated land to previous owners after victories

6. More popular support

The dominant historical view is that the Bolsheviks had greater support among the Russian population. They did a better job presenting their vision and explaining what Bolshevik power could represent for ordinary people.

War Communism

To ensure factories produced sufficient war materials, Lenin adopted a tough practical policy known as War Communism. This paved the way for bureaucratization of the nation and the Party.

Key features of War Communism:

Military discipline in factories

• Death penalty for workers who went on strike
• Execution for persistent absenteeism
• Industrial production prioritized above all else

Ruthless treatment of peasants

• Red Army forcibly seized grain and resources for soldiers and urban workers
• Those who refused were shot
• Resulted in acute food shortage in 1920
• Terrible famine in 1921

Abandonment of currency

• Old inflation-ridden currency was discarded
• Wages paid in food and fuel
• Trade conducted through barter system
• Money effectively eliminated

Forced requisitioning

• Systematic confiscation of grain and supplies
• Established adequate food supplies for industrial workers and the Army
• Used extreme force and violence

Key term:

• Requisitioning: The confiscation of goods, often foodstuffs such as grain, usually with a high degree of force

Red Terror

The Soviet state used brutal tactics to control dissent and stifle opposition. The Red Terror campaign began in September 1918.

Key features:

• Anyone suspected of links to the Whites was captured and executed by the CHEKA
• Deserters from the Red Army were killed
• Between 100,000 and 200,000 people were executed
• Created atmosphere of fear and intimidation
• Suppressed any opposition effectively

Key term:

• Red Terror: Early in the Civil War, the Bolsheviks carried out a deadly campaign of political repression

However, the Whites were scarcely less ruthless:

• They also requisitioned grain by force (though less systematically)
• They used terror and even torture against enemies
• Their brutality prevented them from gaining moral advantage

Impact of the Civil War on Bolshevism

While the Bolsheviks emerged victorious, the Civil War profoundly changed Bolshevik ideology:

Militarization of Bolshevik thought:

• Using force and violence became commonplace
• Summary justice became a normal method of Soviet power
• Coercion was normalized as a tool of governance

Changes to the Red Army:

• Originally opposed to the idea of a traditional standing army
• Transformed into a conventional army of working-class and peasant draftees
• Democratic principles were increasingly set aside

Centralization of the state:

• State became highly centralized to mobilize population
• Developed wartime economy
• Bureaucracy expanded dramatically

Radical social campaigns:

• Laws mandating unconditional equal rights for women
• Creation of Zhenotdel (special branch to empower women)
• Campaigns opposing religious beliefs
• Nation-wide literacy campaign
• Campaigns against drinking, swearing and fighting
• Efforts to "civilize" peasant habits

The New Economic Policy

The close of the Civil War brought a severe crisis for the Bolsheviks:

• Economy was collapsing
• Widespread famine
• Trade and industry at a standstill
• Peasants and workers expressed anger about economic conditions
• Growing resentment of Bolshevik authoritarianism

Growing unrest

Peasant rebellions

• Widespread uprisings across Soviet Russia
• Peasants resisted grain requisitioning
• Rural areas became ungovernable

Worker protests

• Years 1920-21 saw intense political activism in urban areas
• Protest meetings and public demonstrations
• Strikes disrupted production
• Workers in Petrograd called for economic policy changes
• Demands for freedom of political debate and discussion

War Communism and coercion had clearly failed to meet people's needs. As striking Petrograd workers proclaimed in 1921:

A complete change is necessary in the policies of the Government. First of all, the workers and peasants need freedom. They don't want to live by the decrees of Bolsheviks; they want to control their own destinies.

The Kronstadt rebellion

A critical event was the rebellion at the Kronstadt naval base near Petrograd in March 1921.

Significance of Kronstadt:

• The sailors and workers had been strong Bolshevik supporters in 1917
• Trotsky had called them 'the heroes of the Revolution'
• Now they opposed the Bolshevik regime
• Thousands of Petrograd workers joined the demonstration

Demands of Kronstadt rebels:

• Liberation of arrested socialists and working people
• Abolition of martial law
• Freedom of speech, press and assembly for workers
• Wanted the Bolsheviks to finally fulfill promises of the October Revolution

Bolshevik response:

• Lenin had the mutiny brutally crushed
• 60,000 Red Army and CHEKA forces attacked
• Violent suppression of former supporters
• Afterwards, Lenin admitted drastic policy changes were needed
• He said Kronstadt had 'lit up reality like a lightning flash'

Features of the New Economic Policy

In March 1921, the Party introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), a major program of concessions to popular discontent.

Key term:

• New Economic Policy (NEP): The Bolshevik economic policy that represented a significant shift away from War Communism, representing a temporary move to capitalism that allowed business to flourish and stabilize the Russian economy

Main features of NEP:

1. End of forced grain requisitioning

• Free market in grain introduced
• Peasants could grow what they wanted
• Peasants could sell what they wanted
• Grain would reach cities through market mechanisms, not force

2. Denationalization of industry

• Mostly small-scale private industry was re-allowed
• Private businesses could operate legally
• State retained control of "commanding heights":
  • Big factories
  • Banking system
  • Foreign trade

3. Legalization of private trade

• Private trading became legal
• Essential to get goods from producers to consumers
• Small-scale private businesses could operate

4. Return to market economy

• Significant retreat from full communism
• Temporary move towards capitalism
• Lenin argued Russia needed "breathing space" to recover

Results of NEP

The NEP produced impressive results:

Economic recovery:

• By mid-1920s, major cities were well-provided with grain and food
• People moved back to cities as famine ended
• Shops appeared everywhere
• Cafes and consumer goods returned
• By 1926, economy reached pre-war levels of 1913
• Dramatic recovery from 1921 when economy was only one-fifth of 1913 level

Social changes:

• Major restoration of pre-revolutionary life
• Consumer culture returned
• Some people became wealthy (known as "NEPmen")
• Created visible inequality

Controversies surrounding NEP

The NEP created serious ideological problems:

Communist concerns:

• Many communists felt the NEP betrayed the revolution
• Appeared the Bolsheviks were moving back toward capitalism
• Created class of wealthy private traders and businessmen
• Went against communist principles of equality

Lenin's response:

• Russia badly needed breathing space to recover from Civil War
• Bolsheviks didn't have enough troops or officials to run the whole country themselves
• NEP was presented as temporary measure
• Necessary compromise to save the revolution

Long-term tensions:

• The feeling that NEP should soon be ended persisted
• Created ongoing debates within the Party
• Would become major issue in power struggles after Lenin's death

Remember!