Further Significant People and Schools of Thought (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes

Further Significant People and Schools of Thought

Introduction

The depth study of Buddhism includes examination of influential figures and major philosophical schools that shaped the tradition's development. Most of the significant people and schools discussed here belong to the Mahayana tradition, which emphasises flexibility, accessibility and the possibility of enlightenment for all people. Understanding the Mahayana tradition is essential for understanding these developments in Buddhist thought and practice.

Significant people in Buddhist history

Nagarjuna (circa 150–250 CE)

Life and background

Nagarjuna was originally trained in the Hindu Vedic tradition in southern India before converting to Buddhism. His exact dates are uncertain, though references to a king who ruled around 170 CE suggest he flourished during this period. His reasons for converting to Buddhism remain unknown.

After converting, Nagarjuna focused on Mahayana texts, possibly attracted by the exciting philosophical debates occurring at that time about the nature of existence. During this period, the Hindu logical system called Nyaya was developing methods to prove existence and certify truth. Buddhists, meanwhile, were arguing that reality could be broken down into atoms that formed different substances making up the essence of reality. Nagarjuna, understanding both Hindu and Buddhist thought, attempted to develop a philosophical system that incorporated elements of both traditions.

Core philosophical contributions

Nagarjuna's most significant contribution was his development of the concept of sunya, which can be translated as 'nothingness' or 'emptiness'. This concept related to the unstable and impermanent nature of individual existence. The idea was linked to the newly invented mathematical concept of zero, which Nagarjuna used as a philosophical tool to challenge existing proofs of existence. This concept would later have profound influence on the development of Chan/Zen Buddhism.

Nagarjuna's major work was the Basic Verses on the Middle Way (Mulamadhyamakakarika), supplemented by the Seventy Verses on Emptiness and the Sixty Verses on Reasoning. In these texts, he developed a sophisticated method for philosophical doubt and questioning. This reflected the original Buddha's attitude of refusing to answer unanswerable questions about God, the soul or the exact nature of nirvana, instead focusing on the practical problem of human suffering.

The system of negation

Nagarjuna developed a unique approach to philosophical questions using perfect negation. When asked "Is there a god?", Nagarjuna would respond: "A god does not exist nor fail to exist, existence does not have nor not have a god, nor neither not have nor have no god." This approach demonstrates that one need not take a position on something one cannot possibly know anything about.

This philosophical stance strengthened the sceptical position of many Buddhists and provided effective arguments against Hindu Brahman priests who were developing numerous arguments for the existence of gods.

Impact on Buddhism

Nagarjuna is considered one of the most significant early philosophers in Buddhist history, particularly within the Mahayana tradition. He created a philosophical bridge between Hinduism and Buddhism through his deep knowledge of both traditions. His concept of sunyata (emptiness) and ideas about ultimate reality (paramartha satya) versus conventional reality (samvritisatya), known as the doctrine of the two truths, greatly influenced Buddhist philosophy.

His written works remain available today and continue to contribute to Buddhist theories and debates. Nagarjuna is famous for developing Madhyamika, or middle-way thinking, which declares non-commitment to absolute statements about existence through careful negations.

Vasubandhu (fourth century CE)

Life and intellectual development

Vasubandhu was born in an area near present-day Pakistan in north-west India. His father was possibly a Brahman. His eldest brother joined a Buddhist monastery and Vasubandhu followed him. As he developed as a Buddhist thinker, he came into contact with many schools of thinking during the period when the Gupta kingdoms came to dominate Indian life (circa 300–500 CE). These kingdoms patronised philosophy and encouraged debates between Buddhists, Hindus and other religious groups. Vasubandhu was supported by at least two Gupta kings later in his life.

Part of Vasubandhu's early success came when he encountered the Vaibhashika school, whose followers tried to reject everything not said directly by the Buddha. They sought to purify Buddhism of traditions that had developed after Buddha's death. Vasubandhu gave talks on Buddhism during the day and then condensed each talk at night into verse summaries. These verses became the Abhidharmakosha, Vasubandhu's comprehensive explanation of the entire Buddhist system.

Conversion to Mahayana

After completing the Abhidharmakosha, Vasubandhu became unsatisfied with the doctrinal approach of the Vaibhashika school and wrote a treatise against its theories. He then extensively travelled through India, upholding Theravada doctrine. His brother, a Mahayana monk, worried that Vasubandhu would use his exceptional intellect to attack Mahayana doctrine.

Major works and controversies

There are approximately 47 works by Vasubandhu in existence today, most surviving only in Chinese translation. His original work, the Abhidharmakosha, has been continuously studied as a very important Buddhist text, particularly in Northern Indian Buddhism and Tibet.

One significant controversy during Vasubandhu's life concerned the Buddhist speculation that each moment is only created by its immediate predecessor, meaning existence is merely a series of moments. Vasubandhu argued this did not adequately explain life. He proposed that the essence of previous experience was stored subliminally, and its memory was triggered by similar new experiences. Such philosophical arguments allowed Buddhists to triumph over other religious thinkers and increase Buddhism's prestige.

Towards the end of his life, Vasubandhu worked on texts such as the Vimshatika (The Twenty Verses), in which he refuted arguments against Yogacara doctrine. He demonstrated that realists (who believe in objective existence in time and space) were deluded, pointing out that things seem to exist in dreams yet do not. This dream argument increased the prestige of Yogacara doctrine, which teaches that one must work through meditation towards seeing existence as it really is – tied into a unity of Buddha nature.

Impact on Buddhism

Vasubandhu, like other great Buddhist thinkers, is sometimes given the title 'the second Buddha' because of his sophisticated application of thinking to Buddhist doctrine. His thinking raised Buddhism's prestige in India and possibly contributed to its spread among intellectuals in China and Tibet. Vasubandhu was extremely important in the development of the Mahayana tradition in India and helped establish the Yogacara school within Mahayana. His conversion from being a leading Theravadan scholar to Mahayana practice was vitally important for the movement. His ideas continue to influence contemporary Buddhist philosophies.

Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava) (circa seventh to eighth century CE)

Life and significance

Guru Rinpoche means 'Precious Master'. This title, while given to other people, is generally associated with Padmasambhava, who lived around 640 to 840 CE (or possibly a century later). Padmasambhava is considered the most important teacher of the siddha tradition of Buddhism – an emphasis within tantric Buddhism from Tibet where practitioners aim to develop miraculous powers through intense meditation, usually over several lifetimes.

Journey to Tibet

Padmasambhava is closely associated with Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism. Following a perceived attack by demons in Tibet, he was brought from northern India by King Trisong Detsen, where he 'bound' the local deities on his journey through Tibet. This journey represents the recorded aspect of his life that influences Buddhists today in how spirit beings are perceived, treated and visualised, and Buddhist practices in relation to these beings.

Most knowledge of Padmasambhava comes from the Rinchen Terdzo written by Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Thaye in the nineteenth century. These stories are legends, making it difficult to separate reality from legend. According to tradition, Padmasambhava was 'incarnated' as an eight-year-old child in a lotus flower floating in Lake Dhanakosha (in modern Pakistan). He was married to the king's daughter in recognition of his special nature.

In Tibet, Padmasambhava was given the king's wife, Yeshe Tsogyl, as a consort, and the three became recognised Buddhist practitioners. Padmasambhava founded a monastery at Samye Gompa, initiated monks and introduced the concept of tantric Buddhism, where negative forces are not eliminated but used to help develop enlightenment.

Key contributions and teachings

Several significant aspects of Padmasambhava's life and teaching emerge from the legends:

• He possessed the ability to memorise and understand esoteric texts, establishing his reputation as a scholar and teacher
• He overcame local deities, transforming them into protective spirits, which revealed his power
• He hid several treasures to be found by later seekers of truth in lakes, fields, forests and caves. The Tibetan Book of the Dead is believed to be one of these treasures
• He is believed to have built the famous Taktshang monastery in Bhutan

Padmasambhava is depicted in eight forms or manifestations representing various aspects of his being, including comforter, saviour, teacher, bringer of happiness and wrathful judge. Among his writings, the Vajra Guru mantra is particularly significant. Tibetan Buddhists also recite a seven-line prayer to Padmasambhava believed to contain important sacred teachings. Buddhists, particularly in Bhutan, retell the life of Padmasambhava throughout the year, recounting the '12 deeds' of Guru Rinpoche that refer to significant events in his life.

Impact on Buddhism

Padmasambhava is said to have helped millions of people attain enlightenment or 'some attainment' through his teachings and guidance. As his life drew to an end, he left handprints and footprints for his disciples. He then disappeared and, according to tradition, assumed the form of a king, living in mystical form ready to return with Buddha Maitreya, a future form of the Buddha who will complete enlightenment for the world.

Sister Dhammadinna (1881–1967 CE)

Life and background

Sister Dhammadinna had a significant impact on the growth of Buddhism in Australia, though barely any detail is available about her life. She was born in the USA in 1881, and not much is known of her early life (legends have grown about those years). She was ordained a Buddhist nun in Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) and lived there for about 30 years at her Forest Hermitage. Her life there seemed to be that of a reclusive 'forest dwelling' nun rather than a teacher – a contrast to her role in Australia.

Buddhism in Australia before Sister Dhammadinna

Buddhism may have been one of the earliest religious traditions to arrive in Australia through the possible exploration of the continent by Chinese sailors of the Ming Dynasty during the fifteenth century, though this remains controversial. During the 1850s, Chinese people came to the goldfields and built joss houses, which included Buddhist shrines. Sri Lankans built a Buddhist temple on Thursday Island and were involved in the pearling industry.

However, following the end of the gold rush and particularly with the introduction of the White Australia policy (the Immigration Restriction Act 1901), many Chinese and Sri Lankans left. In 1915, several German-born Buddhist monks were interned during World War I. After World War II, Marie Byles, Australia's first female solicitor, became a Buddhist and wrote several books and articles about Buddhism.

Arrival and work in Australia

In 1952 (or perhaps 1951), Sister Dhammadinna visited Australia, the first recorded visit of a Buddhist nun. She arrived in Sydney with little money and the address of Marie Byles, who welcomed her and offered accommodation in a retreat house called the 'Hut of Happy Omen'. This was an unlined, open wooden hut with no bed and few furnishings. As Sister Dhammadinna was 70 years old and partially crippled, needing a back brace, this proved unsatisfactory.

Sister Dhammadinna was then offered accommodation in a Bellevue Hill unit by Leo Berkeley (who later became the first president of the Buddhist Society of NSW). Sister Dhammadinna conducted classes, talks and meditation in Sydney. Her contribution to Australian Buddhism is significant, particularly in New South Wales. She was careful not to accept everyone who approached her for instruction. The classes held about 20 people and she chose eight people, whom she called 'my Buddhists', for further instruction.

Contribution and impact

The eight students of Sister Dhammadinna, along with other interested people, formed the Buddhist Society of NSW in 1953. The Society's first secretary, Graeme Lyall, has written extensively on the early days of the Society and Sister Dhammadinna's visit. Others such as Natasha Jackson, a significant Australian Buddhist from the 1950s to the 1970s, were greatly influenced by Sister Dhammadinna.

Sister Dhammadinna was conspicuous in her Buddhist robes and created a great deal of interest in largely Christian Australia. She certainly raised the profile of Buddhism in Sydney society as an appropriate religious tradition for Westerners (particularly women), leading to an acceptance that only became evident many years later.

Sister Dhammadinna is significant because of her contribution to establishing Buddhism as a religious tradition in Australia. In a relatively brief visit in the 1950s, her work included instruction of important Australian Buddhist leaders and ultimately the foundation of the Buddhist Society of NSW. Her assistance in founding Buddhism in Australia ensured the development of Buddhism as a significant religious tradition in Australia.

Chen Yen (born 1937 CE)

Life and calling

Chin-yun (later Chen Yen) was born in 1937 in Taiwan. Her mother became very ill when Chin-yun was 15 and she prayed that her own life might be shortened by 12 years if her mother recovered. Her mother did recover after her prayers to the Bodhisattva Quan Yin. Her father died when she was 23, and these events led Chin-yun to search to overcome suffering. After seeing two Buddhist nuns, she chose a monastic life and began a life of meditation.

When ordained as a nun, Chin-yun took the name Chen Yen (or Cheng Yen). On one occasion she visited a hospital and noticed blood spilled on the floor by a poor indigenous Taiwanese woman who could not afford medical treatment. She was later visited by Christian nuns who confronted her with the fact that Buddhists did not build schools and hospitals as the Christians did. Chen Yen took this as a challenge she would meet and began with simple efforts, such as making baby shoes and saving small amounts of money.

Founding Compassion Relief Tzu Chi

In 1966, when Chen Yen was 29 years old, she established Compassion Relief Tzu Chi as a relief organisation to help the poor, aged and needy. Initially it worked in Taiwan, but over the years has expanded to offer relief throughout Asia and across the world. Compassion Relief Tzu Chi has opened a hospital in Hualien, Taiwan, that never refuses to treat a patient. Chen Yen regularly visits the sick in the hospital.

A kindergarten, primary and middle school, a college of technology and a university have been established by Chen Yen, and a bone marrow bank was established in 1993. Chen Yen's efforts have developed Buddhist practices of providing essential relief and welfare for those in need.

Impact on Buddhism

Chen Yen is a significant figure in modern Buddhism in seeking to alleviate suffering in the world. She lives humbly, focusing on relieving the sufferings of others. Chen Yen now has a daily broadcast on Taiwanese television.

Chen Yen is a Taiwanese Buddhist nun who responded to criticism by Christians that Buddhists lacked compassion towards those who suffer. Through her own experiences and in establishing Compassion Relief Tzu Chi, she has shown a considered, Buddhist response to suffering in the world.

Tenzin Palmo (born 1943 CE)

Tenzin Palmo was born in London in 1943 and became Buddhist as a teenager. When she turned 20 she left Britain for India to develop her religious commitment. Her work within the Tibetan tradition of Buddhism has been significant. She has laboured not only to strengthen her own faith, but to re-establish pathways through which women can be actively involved in Buddhism in India and Tibet.

Schools of thought in Buddhism

Mahayana Buddhism

Overview and characteristics

It is estimated that there are 100 million Theravadan Buddhists in the world and possibly up to a billion Mahayana Buddhists. The Theravadan tradition (literally 'way of the elders') is considered to be the original strain of Buddhism, claiming to be more traditional and more in keeping with the Buddha's teachings. Its concentration on monastic life, however, is seen as limiting the Buddha's message.

Mahayana (literally 'big or great vehicle') Buddhism developed in India as a breakaway movement in the centuries after the Buddha's death. It strongly respects the Buddha's teachings but adapts and changes more flexibly to local influences. Its transition throughout East Asia has made this form of Buddhism far more popular.

It is a school of 'sudden enlightenment', where the apprentice Buddhist hopes to awake to a sudden realisation of 'Buddha nature' – the realisation that all that exists is joined vitally into a great oneness.

Core concepts

Key aspects of Mahayana Buddhism include the understanding that all people can achieve enlightenment, rather than the more restricted Theravada view that enlightenment can only be achieved after years of meditation and discipline, usually restricted to monks.

Another key aspect is the concept of the Bodhisattva – one who has followed a path to achieve enlightenment but has delayed their own nirvana in order to help others obtain enlightenment. The Buddha himself is an example of a Bodhisattva. Thus, Mahayana could be seen as a less self-oriented form of Buddhism, as the role of an adherent is not only to achieve their own enlightenment but to assist others.

Development and schools

Mahayana began in India, developing from a breakaway movement within the early Buddhist community, generally accepted as one of the outcomes of the Second Buddhist Council. Mahayana Buddhists changed monastic rules, adapted texts and rejected some changes that had been made in the First Council of Buddhists held soon after the original Buddha died. After these early changes, Mahayana developed over time into two general groups.

The Madhyamika school keeps to a middle way between self and non-self – a controversy that erupted early in Buddhist history (see the earlier section on Nagarjuna). The Yogacara school suggests that rigorous meditation (yoga) is the most effective method for coming close to the truth of existence (see earlier discussion on Vasubandhu). Before a Buddhist adherent can reach this stage, Yogacara Buddhists say they must pass through the 10 stages along the path to becoming a Bodhisattva.

Spread and influence

Over time, Buddhism ceased to be a major religious tradition in India. It was driven out for numerous reasons, but traditional Indian religions helped push Buddhists from the country around 800 CE, and the Buddha became identified as an avatar of the Hindu god Lord Vishnu, thus Buddhism was absorbed into Hinduism. Some Buddhists migrated out of India to Sri Lanka; from there, Buddhist thinking and practice spread to Thailand, Myanmar and Laos. These Buddhists were strongly Theravadan. The Theravadan tradition did not spread more widely, possibly due to its traditional inflexibility.

Early Mahayana Buddhists were able to take their form of the religion to Tibet, Vietnam and China, beginning to develop in these regions from 100 CE onwards. As it adapted, Mahayana Buddhism became more and more popular, growing into the largest variant of Buddhism.

By the time of the Tang Dynasty in China (from 640 CE), Buddhism had been adopted as a major court religion. It passed into Korea and from there into Japan. It was very successful, particularly because Madhyamika thinking had numerous elements in common with Taoism, a religion already established in China.

Pure Land Buddhism

Core beliefs and practices

Pure Land Buddhism is a popular devotional denomination of Mahayana Buddhism in China, Korea, Vietnam and Japan, centring on reverence for the Buddha Amitaba (also known as Amida in Japan). This is a celestial form of the Buddha often known as 'infinite light', representing a shift from the human Buddha of Theravada Buddhism to the god-like divine Buddha of Mahayana Buddhism.

According to the Pure Land Sutras, thought to have been composed in India in the first century BCE, Amida vowed to save all sentient beings by letting them be reborn in his domain: the 'western paradise'. This was a pure land that gave its inhabitants easy entry into nirvana. If a person invokes the name of Amida and has complete faith in his grace and the force of his vow, they will gain salvation. It was believed that at the time of death, Amida and his followers would appear to the faithful and take them to his paradise.

The Path of Serene Trust

Pure Land Buddhism is known as the Path of Serene Trust. The Sanskrit term is 'prasada', which can be broadly translated as 'faith' or 'grace'. It means that one is confident that the vow made by Buddhas to lead everyone to enlightenment (the Bodhisattva Vow) has been, or will be, fulfilled. One has serene trust and confidence in the wisdom and power of the Buddhas.

Keeping a Buddha in mind at all times, and praising the virtue of a Buddha, has been part of Buddhism since the earliest days. The very act of taking refuge in the Buddha means trusting in the Buddha as an honoured teacher. Pure Land Buddhism is based on faith, aspiration (the vow for rebirth), and samadhi (single-minded effort aimed at Buddha remembrance).

In Sanskrit this is Buddhanusmrti, which means 'to stay mindful of the Buddha'. Since the beginning of Pure Land Buddhism, this has been a central practice. The Chinese Nien-Fo also refers to reciting the name of the Buddha, among other activities.

Historical development

In both Japan and China, the movement gained momentum from the idea of the 'end of the Dharma', which divided the growth of Buddhist teaching into three ages – the true, the counterfeit and the decaying. In the present (the final, degenerate age), people cannot attain enlightenment by the original means of austerity, self-effort and greater knowledge; they need to rely completely on faith.

In China, there were devotees of Amida from the end of the third century CE. The sect was officially founded by Hui-Yuan, its first patriarch, in 402 CE. Later masters spread the faith among the masses, sometimes using evangelistic methods of contrasting the torments of hell with the bliss of the 'western paradise'.

Impact on Buddhism

Pure Land Buddhism looks to rebirth into the realm of bliss. This can be viewed as literal rebirth into Sukhavati, but it can also be seen as experiencing the direct realisation of the purified mind, in which a person becomes one with the limitless wisdom and kindness that are the notable features of Buddha Amitaba.

Soto Zen

Overview and origins

Soto Zen is the largest of the three schools of Zen Buddhism (the other main Zen schools in Japanese Buddhism are Rinzai and Obaku). Zen is a Japanese word derived from Chan, the Chinese equivalent, which comes from the Indian term dhyana meaning 'meditation'. Zen/Chan Buddhism is Buddhism as expressed in Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese contexts. Soto Zen is also a popular expression of Buddhism in the Western world.

Soto Zen developed in China as Chan Buddhism sometime during the sixth century CE and transformed into a formal aspect of Buddhism some years later with its own monasteries, patriarchs and monks. One interesting aspect of Soto Zen is its stated rejection of texts and its focus on meditation (yet it does have many texts). In this it seems just as inspired by Taoism as by Buddhism.

Core principles and practices

Soto Zen Buddhists believe that enlightenment is possible at all times and for everyone. One does not need to be a monk or dedicate one's life to a monastery in order to become enlightened. The idea of 'sudden enlightenment' is important, although gradual enlightenment is also spoken of.

Chan Buddhism was accepted into Japanese culture, where it became Zen, a philosophy used to explain Japanese ideas of beauty and action. Zen encapsulated the Japanese principles behind numerous martial art practices, painting, gardening, archery, tea making and theatre. Ultimately, Zen, including Soto Zen, remained a 'way of doing', despite an increasingly sophisticated philosophy having developed behind it.

Satori and koans

Meditation and other Soto Zen practices can lead to satori, the Japanese word for 'enlightenment' – realisation of the inherent truth in the Buddha's teachings about existence. In Soto Zen, such enlightenment can come suddenly, like a lightning strike. It can only come from personal experience. It is described as a feeling of 'infinite space'. To approach satori, Soto Zen practitioners often suggest startling or paradoxical activities.

Zazen can include meditation where a Buddhist master walks behind those meditating with a large stick. He either slaps the stick violently against the floor or (without pain but with great shock) against the back of someone meditating. Paradox can be introduced in the form of a short poem or koan.

Historical development

In the fifth and sixth centuries, a series of persecutions against Buddhism took place in China. Ancient Chinese chronicles record that 'millions' of Buddhist monks and nuns were made to return to lay life, and many temples and scriptures were destroyed. However, Buddhism such as Chan did not need temples or scriptures, and relied on meditation practice alone, so it was able to survive and grow.

The story of Bodhidharma, known as the first Chan patriarch, began to be told sometime after these persecutions. Bodhidharma based his teachings on an Indian Buddhist text called the Lankavatara Sutra, which emphasises self-enlightenment beyond words and thoughts, and the recognition that the objects of the world are merely manifestations of the mind.

The most famous patriarch of this lineage was the sixth, Hui Neng (638–713 CE). He was an illiterate peasant who understood better than anyone else at the monastery the essential Chan/Zen understanding of selfhood. The history of the sixth patriarch stresses Soto Zen Buddhism's celebration of personal insight and experience, rather than birth or learning. All surviving Chan/Zen schools regard Hui Neng as their philosophical ancestor.

Around 1227, Dogen Zenji, who had studied in China seeking a more authentic form of Buddhism, returned to Japan with koans and other texts. He emphasised the practice of zazen and founded several temples where Buddhists practised rituals traceable back to the Indian tradition of Buddhism. Dogen is recognised as the founder of Soto Zen in Japan.

Contribution to Buddhism

When Chan/Zen began to appear, China had already experienced centuries of Buddhist development focused on bringing Buddhist texts from India and translating them. The huge numbers of these texts were daunting for anyone who wanted to understand Buddhism. Soto Zen succeeded in this environment because it made Buddhism accessible to everyone, not only scholars and the literate.

Buddhism became acceptable to all people through the Soto Zen doctrine of zazen, putting the focus in a person's spiritual growth on their own experiences of finding their inner nature rather than on complex meditation practices or sophisticated philosophical texts.

Impact on Buddhism

Before Chan/Zen, China already had a long tradition of meditation and tranquillity derived from its own religion of Taoism. The followers of this religion were eager to play with paradoxes and confuse their doctrines, because they thought that truth was ultimately unspeakable. When Chan/Zen began to appear, many believed it to be a development of the ideas of Taoism in the form of Buddhism.

Chan/Zen was a strongly egalitarian system of Buddhism, especially Soto Zen in Japan, which gained widespread support. Because Buddhists of the Chan school were dealing in ideas that seemed to be Chinese, Chan was able to influence Buddhism as it developed in China. Later, Soto Zen shaped Buddhism in Japan. Soto Zen was vital to the development of artistic and martial practices, particularly in Japan. It also helped to develop a particular sense of beauty in Japan.

When Dogen returned from China, he formed a school of Zen named Soto which is, today, far larger than the Rinzai school. Soto Zen became popular because it followed through with the essential Zen attitude of not distinguishing between people and focusing on the authenticity of experience, rather than the authority of monastic structures or scriptures. This was revealed most clearly in its attitude to funerals. By allowing laypeople to be ordained as monks and nuns after their deaths, Soto Zen Buddhists were able to bury everyone using rituals that had previously been kept only for monks and nuns.

More recently, Soto Zen's celebration of simplicity and its focus on the experiences of the mind have made Soto Zen Buddhism increasingly popular in the West. D.T. Suzuki (1870–1966) was central to explaining Zen Buddhism to the West. His books were widely read, and Soto Zen Buddhism made a significant impact on Westerners seeking spirituality radically unlike Western monotheisms. Soto Zen was also a way of explaining the sense of beauty and tranquillity that East Asian religion and philosophy seemed to embody.

Won Buddhism

Origins and founder

Established by Soe-tae San in 1924, Won Buddhism is a modernisation and simplification of Buddhism. Reacting to events in the twentieth century, early Won Buddhists removed much of the complex ritual, obscure texts and superstition that had marked Buddhism in Korea for many centuries. Rather, they sought a simplicity that could be expressed by all adherents.

The founder of Won Buddhism, Soe-tae San, was born the son of a peasant on 5 May 1891 in Chunnam Province, Korea. At the time of his birth, Korea was slowly forgetting its feudal origins and modernising. For much of the first half of the twentieth century, Japanese invaders occupied this nation.

Following the standard course of a Buddhist disciple, Soe-tae San dedicated himself to the religion and became enlightened. Rather than join a traditional path of Buddhism, he set out on his own, developing his own tradition in response to Korea's move into the modern world. In 1924 he established Won Buddhism with nine disciples.

Core principles and practices

The movement kept to a solidly peasant-oriented base. Soe-tae San's approach was to remove many of the rituals of respect that laypeople had been required to pay to monks. He allowed monks in his movement to marry. He wrote new scriptures and had old ones translated into simple, modern Korean. Moreover, by carrying out land reclamation works with his followers, he was able to create enough land to establish a large community.

At the heart of its ritual, Won Buddhism contains references to Amitaba Buddha, making it a part of the Mahayana Pure Land tradition. The religion also attempts to be inclusive of Chan/Zen doctrines. This dual accommodation of Pure Land and Chan is not uncommon in East Asia.

Contribution and impact

Most importantly, Soe-tae San encouraged his followers to be strongly committed to charitable works in the community. Following this plan, numerous community buildings have been erected, particularly educational facilities. Although he died in 1943 after approximately 20 years of mission work, he had created a new and adapted Buddhism that appealed to thousands of Koreans.

Won Buddhism has spread to many other countries where Koreans have migrated such as the United States and Australia. In this global form, the religion also recognises the need for religions to be seen as having a common purpose on Earth. Won Buddhists believe that all religions have the same goal. On account of this central tenet, Won Buddhism encourages interfaith dialogue in the hope of overcoming war and general dissent. This theme of globalisation and world harmony was developed by numerous religions in the twentieth century.

Humanistic Buddhism

Origins and principles

Humanistic Buddhism is a term that applies to an expression of Buddhism that emerged in China at the beginning of the twentieth century. It probably emerged as a reaction to the deification of the Buddha and the emphasis on 'gods' or spirit beings that had become popular in Chinese Buddhism.

The Buddhist monk, Taixu, is credited with developing this school of Buddhism with its emphasis on those seeking to live Buddhist lives, as opposed to the emphasis on deification of ancestors and the duties owed to them. Over time, several schools of Humanistic Buddhism emerged. One of the most significant is Fo Guang Shan, which emerged in the 1960s led by Master Hsing Yun. The Nan Tien Temple, near Wollongong, is a temple of Fo Guang Shan.

Core concepts

The Nan Tien Temple suggests that the principles of Humanistic Buddhism reflect the integration of Buddhist beliefs and practices into the everyday lives of adherents, and promote the Buddha as an example of this. Six core concepts make up Humanistic Buddhism:

• Humanism
• Altruism
• Spiritual practices as part of everyday life
• Joyfulness
• Timeliness
• Universality of saving all beings

Exam guidance

When studying significant people and schools of thought:

Common areas of focus in exams:

• The contribution of significant people to Buddhist thought and practice
• The impact of schools of thought on Buddhism's development
• How Buddhism adapted to different cultural contexts
• The relevance of traditional teachings to modern contexts
• The relationship between different Buddhist traditions

When writing about significant people, ensure you:

• Distinguish between their life, ideas, contribution and impact
• Provide specific examples of their teachings or works
• Explain how their work influenced Buddhism historically and today
• Consider their significance within their specific tradition (e.g. Mahayana)

When writing about schools of thought, ensure you:

• Clearly outline core beliefs and practices
• Explain historical development and context
• Demonstrate understanding of how they differ from other schools
• Assess their continuing relevance and influence

Remember!