Further Significant People and Schools of Thought (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes

Further Significant People and Schools of Thought

Introduction

Christianity has been shaped by numerous influential individuals and theological movements throughout its history. This note examines key figures and schools of thought that have significantly impacted Christian theology, practice, and social engagement. Understanding these people and movements is essential for comprehending how Christianity has developed and continues to evolve.

The significant people discussed represent different eras and contexts, from medieval mysticism to modern evangelism. The schools of thought reflect Christianity's engagement with social justice, gender equality, and structural oppression. Each has left a lasting mark on Christian tradition and practice.

St Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179 CE)

Historical context

During medieval Western Europe, the Catholic Church experienced significant upheaval. Classical Greek and Roman learning was being rediscovered through Muslim intellectual centres in North Africa and Spain. This intellectual revolution, led by scholars known as the Scholastics in centres like Paris, brought new rational approaches to understanding religion. Against this backdrop, religious mystics like St Hildegard provided an alternative, emotion-based approach to faith.

Life and background

Hildegard was born in Böckelheim, Germany in 1098 as the tenth child of a noble family. Following custom, she was dedicated to the Church as a tithe (a tenth part given as a donation). From age eight, she was cared for by Jutta, an aristocrat who had become an anchoress (a woman devoted to total religious seclusion).

From an early age, Hildegard experienced visions of what she believed were heavenly realms. She confided these to Jutta and later to a monk named Volmar, who helped her record them. When Jutta died in 1136, Hildegard became magistra (female teacher or superior) of the growing community of nuns. The community eventually moved to a site near Bingen.

Public ministry and writings

Hildegard remained quiet about her visions until 1141 when she felt divinely commanded to record what she saw. This marked the beginning of her public career. Once her visions were published through letters and books, she became famous across Europe. Christians travelled from far distances to consult her on religious matters, personal futures, and various concerns.

Her published works included:

• Several books of visions
• Encyclopedias of medicine
• Compendiums of music composed for her convent

She died in Bingen in 1179 and was beatified. Pope Benedict XVI formally declared her a saint on 10 May 2012 and a Doctor of the Church on 7 October 2012. Her feast day is celebrated on 17 September.

Key terms

• Tithe: A tenth part of some amount, specifically as a donation to a church
• Anchoress: A woman who dedicates herself to total religious seclusion
• Magistra: Latin word for a female teacher
• Beatification: A declaration by the pope that a soul is blessed in heaven; a stage towards canonisation
• Mysticism: The process of developing a profound connection with an ultimate reality (heaven, God, or deity)

Contribution to Christianity

At a time when philosophy and reason were being renewed in Europe, Hildegard reinvigorated the mystical tradition in Christianity. Her writings demonstrated that anyone dedicated to monastic life and celibacy could have a personal mystical connection with God. She was a strong believer in chastity as the first step towards this divine connection.

Hildegard helped develop a rich language of mystical thought that expanded how Christians felt connected to God. She spoke of God's love as a vigour that renewed both life and nature. She described the 'sacred sound', suggesting music was central to the cosmic order. Her poetic and evocative language deepened Christians' understanding of the emotional dimensions of faith.

Impact on Christianity

Hildegard was used by the Church hierarchy to combat heretical movements. Towards the end of her life, she was taken on speaking tours throughout Germany to urge people not to join the Cathars (a Christian Gnostic group dedicated to poverty whose practices differed significantly from Catholic teaching). Her speeches, combined with other Catholic efforts including military action (the Albigensian Crusade of 1208), contributed to the Cathars' eventual elimination.

Although she spent most of her life in seclusion, Hildegard grew influential through her writings and the increasing literacy in Europe. Church leaders like St Bernard of Clairvaux and Pope Eugenius III took her seriously, helping spread her fame. Christians across Europe wrote seeking her advice on spiritual and practical matters.

Modern influence:

• Her life demonstrates that women could hold prominent positions in religious life, even in medieval times
• Her meditative music is much loved, particularly by the New Age movement
• Feminist religious writers use her as an example of women's historical influence in the Church
• Her understanding of nature's healing dimensions appeals to modern holistic movements
• She serves as an early role model for women in Christianity

Martin Luther (1483–1546 CE)

Background and early life

Martin Luther was a key reformer of the Christian church who initiated the Reformation, one of the most significant events in Christian history. Born in Eislebin, Germany, he studied law then theology, and was ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 1507.

Luther experienced a dramatic conversion during a thunderstorm, fearing he was facing death. He became Professor of Biblical Studies at the University of Wittenberg in 1512. He had long held a view of a wrathful God and feared divine judgement.

Theological crisis and breakthrough

While reading the New Testament letter to the Romans, Luther came to believe that salvation was a matter of faith, not works, church traditions, or payment. This led to a crisis of conscience. He was influenced by Greek and Latin translations of the New Testament by Desiderius Erasmus, a Dutch Catholic scholar whose translations raised questions about traditional Catholic interpretations.

The 95 Theses and controversy

In 1517, Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of Wittenberg Cathedral. These were matters for debate, and his intention was to begin discussion on Church issues he saw as contrary to the Bible. This was an accepted academic practice for beginning debate. It is unlikely Luther wanted to lead a revolution that would split the Christian church.

Luther became caught up in political struggles, supported by Prince Frederick of Saxony, who wanted to assert power against the Italian-dominated Church and the pope in Rome. Luther was summoned to Rome by Pope Leo X and participated in a famous debate where he denied the infallibility of the pope and Church Councils.

He eventually married Katherine von Bora, a former nun, and they had five children.

Contribution to Christianity

Luther's most significant contributions included:

Translation work:

• Translated the New Testament into German, one of the most significant early works in the German language
• Previously, the Bible was only available in Latin
• The recent invention of the printing press enabled his ideas to spread rapidly through Europe

Theological teachings:

• Sola gratia, sola fide, sola scriptura (grace alone, faith alone, scripture alone) – Luther's key beliefs, considered the catch-cry of the Reformation
• The doctrine of justification by grace through faith
• The Bible is the final authority in all things
• The Bible should be available in the language of the people
• Priesthood of all believers – all people can approach God directly
• Two sacraments only: baptism and Holy Communion (not seven as the Catholic Church taught)

Formal statements: In 1530, Lutheran beliefs were outlined in the Augsburg Confession, drawn up by Luther's colleague Philip Melanchthon. By the time Luther died in 1546, the Lutheran Church was established in Germany and Scandinavia, and his ideas had begun the Reformation.

Impact on Christianity

The Reformation led to further splits in the Church across Europe and the beginning of the Protestant Church. Luther's ideas influenced reformers such as Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich and John Calvin in Geneva, who became leaders of the Reformation.

Long-term influence:

• The Lutheran Church remains the largest Protestant Church today with about 80 million followers
• Many modern churches consider themselves Protestant churches, including the Uniting Church of Australia
• The Reformation was one of the most important events in Church history
• The unity of the Western Church was never recovered
• The Catholic Church responded with the Catholic Reformation (or Counter-Reformation), reviewing and either reaffirming or correcting its teachings and practices
• Luther is considered a significant contributor to the development of the German language

Catherine Booth (1829–1890 CE)

Early life and formation

Catherine Booth was born Catherine Mumford in Derbyshire, England on 17 January 1829. She was raised in a strongly Christian home and developed a sincere faith from an early age. By age 12, she had reportedly read the Bible eight times.

As a sickly child, she developed curvature of the spine at 14 and tuberculosis four years later. During her illness, she developed a keen social conscience and wrote articles against alcohol abuse. She joined the Temperance Society (which opposed alcohol abuse) and the Band of Hope, a children's group opposed to alcohol and committed to Christ-like living.

Marriage and ministry development

In 1852, Catherine met William Booth, a Methodist minister who shared her views on social justice and reform and concern for the poor. She had developed a strong feminist attitude that William initially did not share. They argued about women's role in the church; William reluctantly accepted the idea of Catherine preaching but said he 'would not like it'. William's views reflected the general Christian attitude at that time: women should take a submissive role and keep silent during church services.

William Booth and Catherine Mumford married on 16 June 1855. Despite her strong views and involvement in speaking at children's meetings, Catherine did not preach until 1860. When she did, William was so impressed that he immediately changed his view on women preachers. Catherine also spoke in homes and helped people give up alcohol.

In 1864, William and Catherine began the Christian Mission in London's East End. It became known as the Salvation Army in 1878. Catherine was a frequent preacher at Salvation Army meetings and on London's docklands. She and William often preached in the open air, raising considerable hostility from other churches. Lord Shaftesbury, a well-known social reformer and Christian leader, even described William Booth as the Anti-Christ.

William and Catherine had eight children, all involved in the Salvation Army. Two (William Bramwell and Evangeline) became generals of the Salvation Army. Ballington Booth was Commander of the Salvation Army in Australia from 1883 to 1885.

Catherine Booth was diagnosed with cancer in 1888 and died in her husband's arms on 4 October 1890 at age 61. She is buried with William in London.

Contribution to Christianity

Catherine spoke against wealthy people who ignored the squalid living conditions of the poor, exploited them in the workplace, or forced women into prostitution.

Organisational development: The Salvation Army developed into a quasi-military organisation in name only, with military ranks. Both William and Catherine were generals, and Catherine is often called the 'mother of the Army'. She was involved in designing the Salvation Army flag and bonnets for women. The uniforms were developed to overcome people's reluctance to attend church in their ragged clothing, providing an alternative without social stigma and embarrassment.

Social activism: William and Catherine were particularly concerned about sweated labour – women and children working long hours for little pay in poor conditions. One particular issue was match-making. In England, matches were made from yellow phosphorus, which caused a disease known as Phossy Jaw (necrosis of the bone). Manufacturers claimed it was too expensive to change to safer red phosphorus.

Impact on Christianity

Catherine Booth was exceptional, a woman ahead of her time. As a strong feminist and active social reformer, she was responsible for much of the Salvation Army's mission and work. She was involved in developing the Army's beliefs and practices, and that influence has lasted through the years.

Lasting legacy:

• Her support for women preachers has translated into wide acceptance of female leadership within the Salvation Army
• Her campaigns to overcome social injustice have been models for Christians, male and female, in subsequent years
• The Salvation Army is one of the world's foremost charitable organisations as well as an effective Christian church
• While William Booth is often recognised as the founder, it is clear the work was a joint effort with significant contribution from Catherine
• The Salvation Army continues its work today across the world, including Australia, where the Red Shield appeal is a significant annual event

Billy Graham (1918–2018 CE)

Early life and conversion

Billy Graham (born William Franklin Graham, Jr) became one of the most recognisable Christians of the twentieth century. Born in Charlotte, North Carolina, USA on 7 November 1918, he was the son of a dairy farmer and was raised in the Presbyterian Church.

Billy (as he preferred to be known) was converted at a Baptist revival meeting in 1934, led by Mordecai Ham, but was considered unsuitable for the church youth group. After high school, he attended Bob Jones College (a conservative religious college) but found it too rigid and legalistic, leaving after one semester. Bob Jones predicted he would be a 'poor country Baptist preacher somewhere out in the sticks'.

Education and early ministry

Graham transferred to the Florida Bible Institute, gaining a Bachelor of Theology, where he practised preaching to birds, alligators, and tree stumps on an island in the Hillsborough River. In 1943, he graduated with a degree in anthropology from Wheaton College in Illinois.

He was greatly influenced by his Bible school teacher, Henrietta Mears, who helped him believe the Bible is the infallible word of God – a concept that motivated much of his ministry. At Wheaton, Graham met and married Ruth Bell, daughter of missionaries in China. They married in 1943 soon after graduation and had five children. Ruth died in 2007.

Media ministry begins: In 1944, Graham took over a failing radio programme in Chicago called 'Songs in the Night'. This was his first move into mass media. He recruited longtime associate George Beverly Shea as director of his radio ministry; Shea became a significant singer on Graham's later crusades.

Graham contracted mumps in 1945, which prevented his plans to be an army chaplain. On recovery, he co-founded the youth ministry Youth for Christ, then conducted a series of circus-tent revival meetings in Los Angeles in 1949. Here Billy Graham became known as an evangelist – one who preaches the gospel of Jesus Christ and calls for a commitment to follow him.

Theological influence: evangelicalism

The Los Angeles crusades were tremendously successful, and Graham became a national figure, helped largely by positive reports from media mogul William Randolph Hearst. It is reported that Hearst advised his newspaper editors to 'puff Graham' (give him good publicity), possibly due to Graham's patriotism and youth appeal. Billy Graham soon became a national identity, a reality that followed him for most of his life.

Major contributions to Christianity

Billy Graham Evangelistic Association (founded 1950): The Association moved into several areas of outreach including:

• Radio
• Television
• Newspapers
• Magazines
• Film production

Graham established the long-running Christian magazine Christianity Today and became a noted media personality. He wrote nearly 30 books, including bestsellers such as Angels: God's Secret Agents, Answers to Life's Problems, and his autobiography Just as I Am. He was one of the first Christian leaders who focused on the contribution of media to Christianity.

Crusade ministry: Graham conducted 'crusades' across America and worldwide, including:

• London
• New York City
• Australia (1959, 1968, 1982)
• Seoul, South Korea (largest crusade with one million people at one meeting)
• Behind the Iron Curtain during the Cold War
• China and North Korea
• Last official crusade in New York City (2005)

Key feature of crusades: In 1959, Billy Graham insisted that churches work together for crusades. This ecumenism was promoted greatly through these efforts. Many homes in Australia received his publications, and some current Australian Protestant Christian leaders were influenced by Billy Graham. It is estimated that 30 percent of Australia's population attended the 1959 crusades.

Training and conferences: Graham was instrumental in providing training for other evangelists and forums for discussion and research. The most significant was the Lausanne Conference of Evangelism in 1974, which attracted evangelists from around the world. These conferences are now held regularly.

Impact and controversies

Controversial aspects:

• Criticised for calling people to make emotional rather than considered commitments to Christ
• Opposed segregation during the 1960s; refused to speak to segregated audiences in the USA and South Africa during apartheid
• Helped bail Martin Luther King from jail and invited King to join his 1957 New York crusade
• Refused to join Jerry Falwell's Moral Majority group
• Supported politicians from both Democrats and Republicans despite being a Democratic Party member
• Befriended most American presidents since Harry Truman; friendship with Richard Nixon was particularly concerning to critics
• Spoke out against Communism and supported Cold War policy, but stated politics is secondary to preaching the Gospel
• Criticised by the Southern Baptist Convention for apparent support of infant baptism
• Reported making anti-Semitic comments but avoided proselytising Jewish people
• In later years, suggested people of other religious traditions might be 'in Heaven', angering many conservative Christians

Financial integrity: Graham was careful to avoid criticism about money (a common complaint against evangelists). He and his associates produced a manifesto addressing several issues including money, sexual allegations, criticism of churches, and excessive publicity.

Graham's evangelical theology

Graham always preached:

• The need for personal conversion – repentance of sins and acceptance of Jesus Christ as personal saviour
• The inerrancy of the Bible as the infallible word of God

He was included in TIME Magazine's 'Heroes and Icons of the 20th Century'. His influence was particularly felt in Australia, where some Christian leaders were converted at his crusades. The crusades helped promote ecumenism and inter-church cooperation in Australia.

In later years, Graham suffered from Parkinson's disease and had prostate cancer. He appeared at special events such as the Festival of Hope in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina in 2005. He appointed his son Franklin Graham as his successor at Billy Graham Ministries. Billy Graham died aged 99 on 21 February 2018.

Dennis Bennett (1917–1991 CE)

Background and the announcement

Dennis Bennett was an American Episcopal (Anglican) priest who created significant interest when, on 3 April 1960, he announced he had been 'baptised with the Holy Spirit'. Born in the USA on 28 October 1917, he trained as an Episcopal priest. His experience of receiving the 'baptism of the Holy Spirit' is recorded in his book Nine o'Clock in the Morning.

His announcement led some to call for his resignation, saying his experience was inconsistent with Anglicanism and more aligned with Pentecostalism. The announcement received significant media attention, including articles in TIME and Newsweek. Rather than force the issue or become part of a media circus, Bennett resigned as a priest.

New ministry in Seattle

Bennett found support in Bishop William Fisher Lewis of Olympia and went to Seattle, where he was appointed rector (priest in charge) of St Luke's Church. At this stage, Dennis was married with three children. In 1963, his wife Erica died, and he married his second wife, Rita, three years later. Rita supported Dennis in his ministry of writing and speaking as his fame spread in Christian circles.

Bennett remained at St Luke's for 21 years until 1981, when he left to begin the Christian Revival Association (having also founded Episcopal Renewal Ministries in 1973). Dennis Bennett died on 1 November 1991. At his funeral service, Reverend Dick O'Driscoll noted that people worldwide, from Africa to Switzerland, from England to the USA, had been inspired and influenced by his words and work.

Contribution to Christianity

The baptism of the Holy Spirit: The baptism of the Holy Spirit is recorded in the New Testament book of Acts (chapter 2). The experience became the distinguishing mark of Pentecostal churches that emerged in the early twentieth century. Those who shared the experience usually left their own churches to join Pentecostal churches. Bennett sought to remain in his own denomination, and many who shared similar experiences also wished to remain to bring new life to traditional churches.

The charismatic movement: The term 'charismatic' was coined for those who wished to remain in traditional churches. Charismatic is derived from the Greek word charisma, meaning 'gift' – a reference to the gift of the Holy Spirit.

Addressing concerns: The charismatic renewal had issues to address. Many believed that people who had such experiences needed to join charismatic churches and feared services dominated by 'speaking in tongues' (one of the identified gifts of the Holy Spirit). Others believed traditional features of the Episcopal Church (Prayer Book, formal liturgy, organs) needed to be removed and replaced with guitars and chorus singing.

In practice, few of these changes happened in Bennett's church, but a sense of fellowship did develop and attendance increased.

Impact on Christianity

Theological justification: Bennett noted that:

• The New Testament records several occasions when Christian converts received the baptism of the Holy Spirit
• The 1928 edition of the Anglican Prayer Book describes provision for 'laying on of hands … [to receive] the strengthening gifts of the Holy Spirit'
• The 1938 report 'Doctrine in the Church of England' speaks of 'receiving the Spirit'
• The Anglican Confirmation Service calls for reading Acts 8:14–17, referring to Christians receiving the baptism of the Holy Spirit

Bennett's concerns:

• That charismatic renewal would be seen as just a programme that could be applied to the church (similar to the Oxford movement or Cursillo movement)
• That it was not just an option for Christians to choose, but an essential empowering necessity for all Christians
• About the watering down of the Pentecostal and charismatic movements by a third wave denying the necessity for baptism of the Holy Spirit
• That charismatic renewal was essential for the future life of the church, redefining its role from a teaching or preaching institution to that of a gifted community

While Dennis Bennett is not well-known outside the charismatic movement, he combined his experience of the Holy Spirit with a considered theological defence of the charismatic renewal movement. The charismatic movement within mainstream Christianity has declined in recent years, replaced by Pentecostal churches such as separate denominations like Hillsong churches.

Sarah (Sara) Maitland (born 1950)

Background and career

Sarah Maitland is an English author, academic, and feminist theologian. Born in 1950, she came from a large family. For a time, she was married to a Church of England minister but now lives alone. Maitland left the Church of England in 1993 and became a Roman Catholic. She has lived in London and Scotland and now lives in County Durham.

Maitland has become well known as a novelist but also describes herself as an amateur theologian. This gives her the chance to consider the nature of God through both fiction and non-fiction writing. Although she sees herself primarily as a novelist, she also writes short stories and has written several theological works.

Major works:

• A Big-Enough God (1994) – her most popular theological work, discussing the incorporeality of God and his/her non-gendered nature. She refers to the deity as 'She' to challenge the usual expectation that God is an old, bearded man
• Daughter of Jerusalem (1978) – her award-winning first novel that established her reputation, interweaving a modern tale with reflections on female characters in the Bible
• Three Times Table (1990) – draws together religious, scientific, and mythical language to show God can be known in many realms of life

Current work: Maitland is currently a lecturer in creative writing at Lancaster University and has mentored emerging African writers. She describes her writing as 'fairy tales for adults'. At one stage, she worked with film director Stanley Kubrick on a screenplay that was never completed; however, some of their ideas appeared in the Steven Spielberg film Artificial Intelligence: AI.

Contribution and impact on Christianity

In her theological writing, Sarah Maitland seeks to bring the message of Christ further into the modern world. Impacted by radical challenges to life in the West during the 1970s, she is a feminist and clearly supportive of homosexual and other personal identities. With training in science and philosophy, she seeks to draw together science and religion to produce an idea of God that is immeasurably complex and creative.

Key theological themes:

• The wonder of the universe revealed in modern science should show how sophisticated is the God who created the complex world
• She seeks a God who is big enough to stand up to feminist critique
• Her God can be described as wild, even dangerous
• She finds theological discourse that sees God as nothing more than a 'mechanical saviour doll' to be troubling
• God cannot be a machine of salvation that merely tabulates sins and prayers and dispenses salvation accordingly
• God is a vital, complex, and amazing source of life and wonder

Liberation Theology

Origins and historical context

Liberation theology developed during the latter half of the twentieth century, primarily involving the Catholic Church in Latin America. It had roots in the work of evangelists and missionaries who challenged the role and presence of the Church in Latin America.

Historical background: During colonisation, indigenous people of South and Central America were largely mistreated or disenfranchised. Early Christian leaders sometimes colluded in this, but many questioned the Church's role in developing and maintaining injustice towards the poor and indigenous inhabitants. Many considered the Church had so identified with the rich that they neglected the poor.

1950s-1960s developments: As Latin American countries developed their economies, the poor often became dependent on richer nations. There was a rise of:

• Military dictatorships
• Rampant capitalism
• Political repression

The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) gave encouragement to these growing views, providing an opportunity to bring changes to the Church's theology and practices.

Key ideas and theological foundations

Biblical basis: Liberation theologians drew heavily on the Gospel of Luke, where Jesus is seen as friend of the oppressed and outcasts in both actions and teachings. They interpreted Jesus' introduction to his ministry, called the Nazareth Manifesto (Luke 4:16–21), as a social statement about the poor and outcast:

Core theological positions:

• The work of Jesus Christ was to be interpreted not only as saviour of individuals but as liberator of the oppressed
• Jesus identified with the poor (born in poverty, lived as a refugee, had no home, buried in a borrowed tomb)
• The Christian Gospel is a message for the poor
• God is to be found in the suffering of the poor and in the course of human history
• Sin is not just a theological concept but defined in terms of man's inhumanity to man

Marxist influence: Many liberation theologians were influenced by Marxism (a social, political, and economic theory based on ideas of Karl Marx). Some argued it was simply a restatement of New Testament Christian communalism. This perception of Marxist influence has been the greatest criticism by those within and outside the Church.

Church role: According to liberation theology, the Church should:

• Be actively involved in changing the structures of society, not just preaching and teaching
• Take a progressive stance in the face of conservative governments and hierarchical structures
• Be concerned about social change and justice
• Address equality for the poor
• Combat abuse of human rights
• Challenge institutional and attitudinal oppression

Development and key figures

1970s formalisation: In the 1970s, works of several liberation theologians were published and came to wider Church attention:

• Gustavo Gutierrez – Teologia de la liberacion (Peru)
• Leonardo Boff – Jesus Cristo Libertador (Brazil)

This led to the development of a formal theological position. Asian and African theologians have also adopted many ideals of liberation theology and applied them to their churches and communities.

Key quotes from liberation theologians:

Contribution to Christianity

During the 1970s, in tune with developing social trends worldwide, a series of conferences and papers led to liberation theology's development as a formal movement. By the late 1970s, the Catholic Church issued statements recognising positive aspects of liberation theology but criticising others such as support for revolution and Marxism.

Church opposition: Over time, the Catholic Church objected to:

• Liberation theology's use of Marxist ideas
• Support of revolutionary movements
• Criticism of the Church

Both Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI expressed opposition to liberation theology. In 1980, Archbishop Oscar Romero of San Salvador clashed with John Paul II while visiting Europe. Oscar Romero was assassinated on 24 March 1980 while celebrating Mass in a chapel near his cathedral.

Recent developments: Pope Francis, himself Latin American (Argentinian of Italian descent), strongly advanced the cause of Oscar Romero's beatification and canonisation. Romero was beatified in 2014 and canonised in 2018. This has been interpreted as Pope Francis' endorsement of liberation theology in contrast to his predecessors.

While the Catholic Church sought to suppress liberation theology, the ideas have been developed further by:

• Protestant theologians such as Jurgen Moltmann and Alistair McIntosh
• Catholic theologians outside Latin America such as Hans Küng and Henri Nouwen

Impact on Christianity

Liberation theology aims to see a society where there are no differences between rich and poor, and where people are involved in Church decisions. Liberation theologians are committed to social action as well as personal conversion. They believe this is part of Christ's ministry to the world.

Lasting influence:

• Has enjoyed some favour in recent years but may not achieve the wider acceptance it had in the 1970s
• Has been an influential movement suggesting the Christian gospel cannot be limited to individual needs but should effect change in society
• Asserts that the division between sacred and secular cannot be maintained
• Attacks the Church's alliance with the rich and powerful as inconsistent with the Jesus of the New Testament
• Gives voice to the poor
• Evident in many Christian people and organisations – Catholic, Protestant, and ecumenical
• Example: Sojourners organisation, which challenges traditional Christianity in maintaining political and power structures

Feminist Theology

Historical context of patriarchy in Christianity

Christianity has developed historically as a patriarchal religious tradition. The first disciples were men, as were the early Church leaders. Over centuries, this position became entrenched, reflecting:

• A particular interpretation of Christian theology
• The monastic traditions of Christianity
• A particular interpretation of the Bible

Biblical basis for patriarchy:

• Eve was seen as the one who led her husband astray, thus sin entered the world (2 Corinthians 11:3)
• St Paul wrote: "Women should remain silent in the church. They are not allowed to speak" (1 Corinthians 14:34)
• In Bible translations into English, the male pronoun was used in reference to God
• Jesus is definitely a man

Historical attitudes:

• Women were refused ordination
• Many Christian leaders had a poor view of women
• Women were often seen as temptresses who would lead men astray and as having little value
• Martin Luther said, 'women are on Earth to bear children'
• Even twentieth-century theologian Karl Barth has been quoted saying 'women are ontologically inferior to men'

Early feminist movements

Missionary movement: Women emerged as Christian leaders with the growing missionary movement of the colonial period. It was not acceptable to send women to teach 'ignorant savages' even if they were not allowed to teach men in the West. To do this, women were given theological training and developed their own approaches to understanding Christianity.

Women's suffrage: During the rise of women's suffrage, many early leaders such as Annie Besant and Susan B. Anthony were committed Christian women. There was agitation within the movement to allow women to be more involved in Church leadership, but this had little effect and eventually died down. The Church hierarchy likely allowed these women to be vocal to achieve goals of temperance and prohibition but not to use that voice within the Church.

Development in the 1960s

It was not until the 1960s that feminist theology really began to develop. It grew alongside similar movements such as:

• The civil rights movement
• Liberation theology

These movements supported the rights of those often oppressed.

Maintenance of patriarchy: The Church maintained patriarchy in two major ways:

1. Women were not able to be ordained as priests, especially in mainline churches (Catholic, Anglican, Orthodox)
2. Use of male-dominated language in the Bible and liturgy of the Church

Ordination struggles

Anglican Church in Australia: It was a long struggle for women to be ordained in the Anglican Church:

• The Movement for the Ordination of Women (MOW) was an Australian example of the feminist movement at work
• Patricia Brennan and Patricia Hayward are two significant Australian feminist leaders from the MOW
• Women were ordained to the priesthood in the Anglican Church in Australia in the 1990s
• However, the Anglican Sydney Diocese does not recognise women priests
• In recent years, there has been a strong move against the leadership of women in the Sydney church
• The first female bishop, Kay Goldsworthy, was consecrated in Australia in 2008

Catholic and Orthodox churches: The Catholic Church and Orthodox churches do not ordain women to the priesthood.

Contribution to Christianity

Biblical reinterpretation: As feminist theologians studied the Bible, they noted that only a particular interpretation had been encouraged by the Church:

• Paul used the second creation story (Genesis 2) in his letters, but the first creation story (Genesis 1) suggests equality between men and women
• Many references to women as leaders and positive role models (Deborah, Ruth, Esther, Mary and Martha) had been omitted from the lectionary used in many churches

Rediscovery of Luke's Gospel: Feminist theologians, like liberation theologians, rediscovered the Gospel of Luke:

• Jesus is seen as ministering to the outcasts of society
• Jesus is a friend of women and accepts them as his disciples
• Luke tells the story of Mary, Jesus' mother, and of Mary and Martha, two of Jesus' closest friends
• Luke describes women as the first witnesses to the resurrection
• Jesus is considered a proto-feminist who challenged the patriarchy of his day

St Paul's letters: Even Paul, often considered a misogynist, describes significant women:

• Prisca/Priscilla, a teacher (Acts 18:18–28 and Romans 16:3)
• Phoebe, a deacon (Acts 16:1)
• Paul spoke of equality: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ" (Galatians 3:28)

Impact on Christianity

Biblical scholarship: Feminist theologians, such as Catholic Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, have urged Christians to question their approach to interpreting the Bible. Schüssler Fiorenza coined the term 'hermeneutics of suspicion' to suggest the Bible has, in the past, been interpreted from a position of male dominance. She encouraged women and other oppressed groups to challenge the decisions of the patriarchal Church.

Progress made: Some recent progress has been achieved:

• In Australia, the hymnbook Together in Song has translated many hymns into gender-neutral language
• The Anglican Prayer Book for Australia uses gender-neutral language
• The New Revised Standard version of the Bible has been translated to use gender-neutral language where not specifically male or female

Modern context: Women probably comprise more than 60 percent of church attendees. Feminist theology seeks to enfranchise these women in a way they have not been before.

Reaction: There has been some reaction to Christian feminism in recent years, particularly among Pentecostal and fundamentalist Christians who seek to reaffirm the feminine role of women in the home as wives and mothers. Many of these Christians are uncomfortable with:

• Ideas of radical feminists of the 1960s
• Push for more liberal attitudes on reproductive issues (birth control and abortion)
• Free expression of sexuality

Women's leadership roles: In many churches, women have significant leadership roles, and in modern Christianity there are clear efforts to strive for equality and gender neutrality. This includes efforts among women in the Catholic Church (see the Council for Australian Catholic Women - CACW for an Australian example).

Remember!