Ethics (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes

Ethics

Introduction to Hindu ethics

Hindu ethics forms an integrated system that connects religious belief with practical daily living. Ethics in Hinduism is not simply a theoretical concept but represents a complete life pattern that shapes the fabric of existence for Hindu adherents. The ethical system encompasses educational, religious, civil and moral dimensions.

The foundation of Hindu ethics rests on the concept of rta – the divine pattern in nature that governs the natural world, human ethics, conduct and justice. Through this concept, Hinduism establishes a direct link between the created world and the divine. Nature is understood as an extension of God, with the physical cosmos representing a crystallisation of the divine mind.

The Upanishads emphasise this relationship by stating "Think of wealth and strive to win it by rta and puja", demonstrating how proper ethical conduct and worship are seen as pathways to material prosperity.

The five constant duties

Hindu ethical behaviour centres on the householder (grihastha), who bears responsibility for teaching and exemplifying ethical living. The teachings of the Vedas have been organised into five fundamental obligations that structure ethical practice:

1. Dharma (virtuous living) – maintaining goodness in thought, word and deed
2. Upasana (worship) – performing regular devotions at home and in temples
3. Utsava (holy days) – observing all Hindu festivals
4. Tirthyatra (pilgrimage) – undertaking pilgrimage at least once annually
5. Samskara (sacramental rites) – marking each significant life ceremony

These duties, alongside the Ten Commitments and other practical Hindu observances, maintain the ethical behaviour of the sanatana dharma (eternal law).

Bioethics

Hindu approach to bioethical issues

Despite Hinduism's ancient origins, the tradition has demonstrated remarkable adaptability to contemporary bioethical challenges. The Hindu approach to bioethics reflects pragmatism rather than rigid prohibition. Several key principles shape Hindu bioethical perspectives:

Duty-based framework: Hindus approach bioethics from a duty-based perspective rather than a rights-based framework. This means ethical decisions are evaluated based on whether they fulfil one's dharma (duty) rather than asserting individual rights.

Karma and rebirth: The cycle of samsara (rebirth) should not be interfered with arbitrarily. Actions that affect the potential for new life or prematurely end the current life raise significant ethical concerns. The karma accumulated in one's present life determines the circumstances of the next incarnation, making the ethical implications of biomedical interventions particularly important.

Ahimsa principle: The doctrine of do no harm must be considered in all bioethical decisions. This principle extends beyond individual human beings to encompass all sentient beings.

Karma transfer: Hindus believe that karma may be transferred from one human being to another, which becomes relevant in cases such as organ transplantation.

Specific bioethical issues

Abortion

Children hold great importance in Hindu society, and procreation is considered a central teaching. The Manusmrti and Atharva Veda explicitly condemn the practice.

Reproductive technologies

Contraception can be viewed as part of intelligent family planning that helps ensure dharma is followed appropriately. Artificial insemination does not raise particular concerns, especially given the cultural importance placed on male children and the anxiety associated with childless families.

In-vitro fertilisation (IVF) is generally not problematic for Hindus, as procreation remains a central teaching. However, the use of donor sperm may raise concerns. Indian culture places importance on the donor's ancestry and family background, with the varna (caste) of the father holding significance for some families. This connects to legal questions about who constitutes the parents of the child.

Gene manipulation

Gene manipulation may be acceptable when viewed as a means of benefiting humankind. Gene therapy designed to relieve suffering is considered acceptable and even expected. However, using genetic technology purely for sex selection would raise ethical concerns.

Death and dying

Hinduism demonstrates acceptance of death and dying as natural processes. A dignified death is the ideal, though medical intervention to prevent premature death is generally considered acceptable. Active participation in hastening death, such as euthanasia or doctor-assisted suicide, would not be acceptable in most circumstances.

The Mahabharata describes Drona, who refused to eat and died when he believed his son had perished. The practice of sati (where a widow throws herself onto her husband's funeral pyre) was historically observed by some groups, and those suffering extreme pain or illness were sometimes permitted to burn themselves in a sacrificial fire.

Despite these historical exceptions, modern Hinduism has largely evolved to favour medical and scientific progress whilst maintaining core spiritual principles. As Mahatma Gandhi stated: "As human beings, our greatness lies not so much in being able to remake the world as in being able to remake ourselves."

Environmental ethics

Theological foundation

Hindus maintain great reverence for the environment, grounded in fundamental theological beliefs. According to the Upanishads, the world was created from the Supreme Being, and Brahman "entered into every object created". Everything in the world forms part of Brahman and therefore should be treated with respect or even veneration.

The Vedas address the Earth as Mother Earth, personifying her as the goddess Bhumi (or Prithvi). Life on Earth encompasses not only human beings but also plants, birds and animals.

Sacred elements and beings

Water

Water receives particular respect in Hindu sacred writings. More than 50 hymns from the Vedas praise the Saraswati River, whilst the Ganges River is identified as a manifestation of the goddess Ganga. The Manusmrti condemns the pollution of rivers, explicitly stating: "One should not throw urine, stool or mucus into the water" (Manusmrti 4:56).

Animals

Hinduism shows considerable respect for many animals. Some Hindu gods have appeared in animal form or as half-animal beings, such as Ganesha (elephant-headed god) and avatars of Lord Vishnu including Kurma (tortoise) and Varaha (boar). Nandi the bull, Garuda the eagle and Hanuman the monkey king are all celebrated characters in Hindu epics.

This respect manifests practically through the veneration of cows, temples built to serve monkeys, and widespread vegetarianism. Vegetarianism is considered an obvious expression of environmental ethics, showing respect for the environment particularly regarding animal life.

Active environmental responsibility

Protecting the environment is part of dharma. Many environmental initiatives in India have historically been expressions of dharma rather than purely environmental acts. Consequently, actions affecting the environment will also affect one's karma.

Environmental initiatives

India has experienced environmental degradation due to heavy population expansion and resource demands. Significant projects have emerged to counter these trends, including efforts to protect the Narmada River and the Chipko movement to protect Himalayan forests.

The word "chipko" means "to hug", and the Chipko protests of the early 1970s, mainly led by women villagers, became a model for Western ecological tree-hugging movements.

The Indonesian island of Bali, a Hindu enclave in a Muslim country, demonstrates sustainable environmental practices through rice terraces sculptured in an environmentally sustainable way that has ensured rice production for generations.

Australian context

In Australia, the Hare Krishna movement (ISKCON – International Society of Krishna Consciousness) has developed environmental awareness and animal protection programmes. They operate several farm communities in New South Wales and Victoria, promoting vegetarianism alongside spiritual understanding. These farms provide protective environments for animals whilst developing a spiritual perspective on the environment, committed to environmental reform.

The Hindu Council of Australia promotes a Meat Free Day, has launched the Hindu Climate Action Kit, and participates in interfaith initiatives including the multi-faith Eco-Forum and the Faith Ecology Network. They regularly publish articles about the environment on their website.

Sexual ethics

Kama and sexuality

Kama represents one of the legitimate pleasures of life as defined by Hinduism. Kama essentially means enjoying life's pleasures and refers to, among other things, sexuality. Through this concept, Hinduism acknowledges the importance of sexuality and the need for sexual ethics. However, in certain contexts, considerable restrictions are placed on the expression of sexuality.

The Kama Sutra is a famous Hindu text promoting pleasure and sexual activity. Recent times have seen renewed interest in tantric Hinduism with its supposed emphasis on spiritual sexuality.

Marriage

Marriage is regarded as the norm for Hindus unless one wishes to become an ascetic and withdraw from society to follow a god through strict self-discipline. Marriage serves three main purposes:

1. The promotion of dharma
2. Bringing children into the world
3. The expression of sexual pleasure

Marriage is regarded as a permanent state that should not be dissolved. It is generally delayed until completion of the first ashrama stage (Brahmacharya, or student stage). The life of a Brahmacharya should be chaste, so premarital sex is discouraged. Hindu sacred writings support the idea that sex should be expressed within the marriage context.

In Hindu marriage, both husband and wife share equal duty towards each other to maintain the sanctity of marriage. The extended family is considered a vital unit in society, and Hindus are urged to fulfil their duties. Within the family, strict religious duties must be followed by each member, including continuing the family name by having sons.

Arranged marriages

Marriage is still frequently arranged in Hindu society, although this is changing among India's large educated middle class. Arranged marriages are less common among Hindus living in Australia but still occur. Marriage consultants are engaged by the parents of the bride and groom to check compatibility in terms of astrology, caste and wealth. Usually a priest is consulted to ensure the marriage partners are suitable using horoscopes.

Dowries (goods or money that a bride's family brings to her husband) are a normal part of the arrangement in India, although declared illegal in 1961. For Hindus in Australia, this is less often the case.

Divorce

Whilst divorce is now legal under Indian common law, it remains uncommon in Hindu society and often results in social stigma. In an arranged marriage, love is not the paramount motivation, so falling out of love with a spouse is not considered a valid reason to divorce. Chastity in marriage is regarded as faithfulness to the marriage partner, not celibacy.

Polygamy (having more than one spouse) is no longer common but was common in Hindu sacred texts and certain periods of Indian history, especially among the elite. It can be allowed in some circumstances where there are no children from the first wife.

Modern changes

The status of widows in India remains a concern. Many are unable to remarry and are sometimes abandoned by their families. The practice of sati (where a widow throws herself onto her husband's funeral pyre) became more evident during the colonial period and was made illegal in British India in 1829.

Modern Hindus are more flexible in their approach to marriage, with less emphasis on caste restrictions and greater involvement of the future husband and wife in choosing their marriage partners.

Premarital and extramarital sex

Premarital sex is not approved of in Hindu society and is rarely spoken about. Extramarital sex is also discouraged, and husbands and wives are expected to be faithful to their spouses. Where expressions of sexuality other than the accepted ones occur, this is considered a private matter and rarely discussed. This is evident in Bollywood movies, where a man and woman are not allowed to kiss on screen unless portraying a married couple.

In recent times, as Hindus have become more exposed to Western thinking and globalisation, Hindu taboos on human sexuality are slowly breaking down. There is new recognition of the role of religion in repressing sexual expression and greater willingness to discuss sexuality issues. However, traditional taboos remain strong and Hindu norms are often maintained.

Homosexuality

The Mahabharata reveals a vast range of emotional and sexual activity experienced by heroes, heroines and gods. A notable example is Draupadi – a woman married to Arjuna and his four brothers simultaneously, representing one of the only examples of polyandry (a wife having many husbands) in sacred literature.

In dharma shastras texts, there are no heavy proscriptions against same-sex love, but the idea exists that this kind of love can only exist in relation to (and eventually be superseded by) male-female marriage and child-rearing. It is in this context that some scriptures seem to oppose homosexuality.

The Manusmrti text describes punishments for homosexual practices, but also for heterosexual misconduct, and refers (in chapter 3:49) to the existence of a third gender, the hijras (transgender people and eunuchs). The Kama Sutra also refers to homosexual practices and mentions the third gender.

Organisations such as the Gay and Lesbian Vaishnava Association consider current resistance to homosexuality a form of homophobia imposed by British colonialism and believe that strict differentiation between male and female is not consistent with the writings and traditions of Hinduism.

Gender roles and discrimination

There is considerable ambivalence towards gender roles in Hinduism. Obvious expressions suggest clear demarcation between genders and patriarchal values, such as the dowry system, treatment of widows and the practice of sati.

Female deities and sacred texts

However, Hinduism maintains a long tradition of female deities or goddesses. Some of the most popular gods are female, including Devi, Laksmi, Parvati and Kali. It is significant that Brahma has been almost eclipsed by his consort, Saraswati. The Gayatri Mantra, one of the most significant Hindu prayers, has been personified as the goddess Gayatri.

One of the earliest references to women's status is contained in the Rig Veda, where a woman is addressed as their commander (Rig Veda 10.85.26; some interpret this as a reference to being a "mistress of a house"). In writings such as the Manusmrti, women are granted rights to own property and inherit wealth independently. Women are depicted as gurus and have the right to graduate from Vedic schools. There is a famous description of Shankara's debate with the woman Bharati.

According to the Bhagavata Purana, the Mahabharata was written specifically for women and for men who were not Brahmins (see Bhagavata Purana 1.4.25). The Bhagavad Gita states: "By taking refuge in me even those of unfavourable birth, women, Vaishyas and also Shudras attain the supreme state" (Bhagavad Gita 9:32).

Contemporary challenges

Many scholars note that the concept of dowry does not exist in Hindu sacred writings. In fact, sacred texts clearly suggest that the husband is meant to ensure the wife has independent wealth. Many texts also note that a woman is free to choose her husband and there should be no exchange of dowry. Similarly, there are few references to sati in sacred texts. Rather, many great women in significant religious texts are widows.

Divorce is also allowed in the sacred writings if the husband is unable to father children or has become an ascetic. Widows can also remarry. There are numerous women who might not be considered "pure" but are praised in scripture. One of the most significant is Kunti from the Mahabharata, who had a child out of wedlock and went on to become a loved and revered queen. When the king died, she did not commit sati.

Women in Hindu leadership

Many Hindu teachers, saints and gurus are female, including:

• Mira Bai (1503–1573) – poet and mystic who has influenced the Bhakti movement
• Sarada Devi (1853–1920) – wife and successor to Ramakrishna
• Amma (Mata Amritanandamayi, born 1953) – called the hugging saint/guru

Women play a significant role in Indian politics, with some parliaments reserving seats specifically for women to combat gender inequality. Mayawati, an Indian politician, became the first Dalit woman chief minister of any state, serving four terms as Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, India's most populous state. Mayawati is regarded as a symbol of dignity and political inspiration for millions of Dalits.

Analysing gender discrimination

Some Hindus suggest that Indian society has become patriarchal largely through British influence rather than Hindu influence. However, the concept of varna suggests that some Hindu men, particularly higher-caste men, may have a position of spiritual superiority within their religion, which may translate into life attitudes.

There is a call in modern feminist Hinduism to reject Western influences and return to Hindu roots, where women are considered spiritually powerful and, according to tantra traditions, are "friends" rather than in a subservient position. Hinduism is now seeking appropriate expressions of gender that reflect its origins and central beliefs whilst finding contemporary expression.