Significant People and Schools of Thought (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes
Significant People and Schools of Thought
Introduction to significant people and schools of thought in Islam
When studying significant people or schools of thought in Islam, it is essential to examine their lives, contributions, and ongoing impact on the Islamic religious tradition. The HSC examination may ask you to explain how a person or idea contributed to Islam's growth and assess their broader impact on the faith. This requires understanding the controversies surrounding them, their contributions during their era, and their relevance today.
You must ensure your analysis relates to Islam as a religious tradition rather than focusing narrowly on political or national developments in the Islamic world. This distinction is crucial for demonstrating proper understanding of the subject matter.
The study of significant people and schools of thought helps demonstrate how Islam has evolved and adapted through the contributions of key individuals and movements.
A'isha bint Abu Bakr
A'isha bint Abu Bakr (sometimes transliterated as Ayisha or Ayesha) was one of Muhammad's wives and had a profound impact on the early development of Islam. She remains one of the most significant and controversial women in Islamic history.
Early life and marriage
A'isha was the daughter of Abu Bakr, one of the Prophet Muhammad's closest companions. Born around 615 CE, she died around 678 CE. The companions were those who followed the Prophet as Muslims during his lifetime.
A'isha's marriage to Muhammad occurred when she was of accepted marrying age according to seventh-century Arabian customs. Recent Muslim scholarship, considering all available evidence, suggests she was approximately 17-19 years old when she married the Prophet. The fact that she was already engaged to marry someone else before Muhammad indicates she had reached the customary age for marriage at that time.
A'isha was one of the earliest converts to Islam and was among the first children to grow up in a Muslim family. Her father, Abu Bakr, was perhaps Muhammad's closest companion and the first adult male convert to Islam. Her marriage to Muhammad strengthened the bond between the Prophet and Abu Bakr, uniting them in both religious and political objectives.
Muhammad's marriages and A'isha's special position
Of the 11 or 12 wives Muhammad married after his first wife's death, sources indicate he loved A'isha the most. She was intelligent, inquisitive, and learned Islam directly from Muhammad. Her wit and vivacity particularly attracted the Prophet.
Muhammad's first marriage was to Khadijah when he was 25 years old. This marriage lasted 25 years and was happy and monogamous. Khadijah, considered the first convert to Islam, gave Muhammad tremendous support during the early, difficult years of his prophetic mission. Muhammad once said of her: "She believed in me when I was rejected; when they called me a liar, she proclaimed me truthful; when I was poor she shared with me her wealth."
After Khadijah's death in 619 CE, Muhammad, from age 53 onwards, married several women for various reasons. This practice of having multiple spouses is known as polygamy. In seventh-century Arabia, marriages served to create kinship bonds between tribes and remove animosities. Some of Muhammad's marriages served this diplomatic purpose. For example, he married Ummu Habiba, daughter of Abu Sufyan, the leader of Meccan opposition to Muhammad. After this marriage, Meccan opposition softened considerably. Some marriages were to older or widowed women who had no one to care for them.
Once Muhammad had left Mecca in 622 CE and been welcomed into Medina as a prophet, rooms were built for him facing the mosque. The private area of Muhammad's house and the public area of the mosque were barely separate. A'isha formally began living with Muhammad as his wife between 622-624 CE. Living with the Prophet, A'isha was extremely close to the centre of Muslim power.
Around 623-24 CE, Muhammad married Hafsa, the young widowed daughter of Umar (another companion who would later become caliph after Abu Bakr). Hafsa and A'isha became good friends. These two wives and their influential fathers formed a key part of what later became known as Sunni Islam. Muhammad's fifth marriage, to Umm Salama in 626 CE, represented different interests. She tended to represent the household of Ali, Muhammad's cousin and the man who married Muhammad's daughter Fatima. The group around Ali and Fatima would develop into Shi'a Islam.
Near the end of his life, when Muhammad fell ill, he began asking what day it was. His wives realised he wanted to know when he would be with A'isha, as he visited his wives on a roster system. All his wives agreed to let the Prophet spend his last days in A'isha's room, and he died in her arms. He is buried in her bedroom, which is now inside the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina. These events impressed upon Muslims the important role that love plays in a marriage. A'isha's charming, forthright and vibrant nature formed an ideal to which many Muslim women aspire.
The scandal of the slander
An important example of how A'isha influenced Qur'anic revelation comes from early in her marriage and concerns "the slander."
The Incident of the Slander (627 CE)
In the Islamic year 5 (627 CE), A'isha accompanied the Prophet on his successful war campaign against the Banu Mustaliq. On the return journey, A'isha strayed from the campsite.
Back at camp, the man assigned to A'isha's care picked up her curtained litter (a covered seat carried by an animal) and attached it to the camel. He assumed she was inside and set off. When A'isha discovered the caravan had departed without her, she sat and waited for someone to return for her.
A young scout named Safwan ibn al-Mu'attal later discovered A'isha, placed her on his camel, and returned her to Medina. This led to widespread rumours about A'isha's fidelity, spread by old leadership in Medina who saw an opportunity to harm the Prophet. Unsure of his wife's innocence, Muhammad ceased receiving revelations from Allah for a period. A'isha returned to her parents' house during this difficult time.
After seeking advice and questioning A'isha, Muhammad finally received a revelation now found in the Qur'an (24:11-13):
Verily those who brought forth the slander [against A'isha] are a group among you... Why then, did not the believers, men and women, when you heard [the slander] think good of their own people and say: 'This is surely an obvious lie? Why did they not produce four witnesses? Since they [the slanderers] have not produced witnesses! Then with Allah they are liars!
This revelation proclaimed A'isha's innocence. The reference to four witnesses was subsequently used as a precedent by Muslim jurists in developing Shari'a (Islamic law). According to this principle, no adultery can be proved unless four witnesses can be found. This incident demonstrates how A'isha's experiences directly influenced Islamic legal principles.
Political involvement and the Battle of the Camel
After Muhammad's death, A'isha spent the rest of her life single under the special designation of Mother of the Believers. Widows of the Prophet were not permitted to remarry. It was during these years that A'isha developed her most significant contributions to Islam.
Following Muhammad's death, A'isha's father, Abu Bakr, led the Muslim community as the first caliph for two years. When he died, he was buried with the Prophet in A'isha's room. Umar, father of A'isha's co-wife Hafsa, then ruled as the second caliph (634-44 CE). During his reign, Muslim armies expanded into new territories, adding complexity and tension to the young community of believers.
These tensions escalated during the reign of the third caliph, Uthman, who was from the Umayyad clan from Mecca. Many Muslims criticised what appeared to be Uthman's nepotism (favouring relatives), particularly in the second half of his rule. Despite attempts to calm complainants, a group from Egypt invaded Uthman's house and assassinated him. The people of Medina, with support from followers of Ali (the Prophet's son-in-law), then proclaimed Ali as the fourth caliph.
A'isha was away in Mecca making the pilgrimage when she heard of Uthman's death. She hurried to the Ka'ba and began speaking to the crowd, calling on them to avenge Uthman's death. A large army of volunteers gathered around her, and she led this army towards Basra. However, the army began to fracture, with some enthusiastic supporters leaving and others planning to use her force for their own political advantage.
The Battle of the Camel (656 CE)
Outside Basra, A'isha's army met Ali's army. Fighting broke out in what became known as the Battle of the Camel (656 CE), named because A'isha entered the battle mounted on her camel. She became the rallying point for her army. Seeing the viciousness of the fighting, Ali ordered the camel cut down, which helped bring the battle to an end.
Ali treated A'isha with respect and escorted her back to Medina. However, his victory was short-lived. After a five-year rule, Ali was assassinated by a rebel (Khariji) in 661 CE. Ali's son Hasan, Muhammad's grandson, was elected as the next caliph but abdicated to end the conflict. He handed leadership to Muawiya, a relative of Uthman who had been Governor of Syria. Muawiya founded a hereditary caliphate (passed down within a family), known as the Umayyad dynasty, which controlled the Muslim world until 750 CE.
Contributions to Islamic knowledge
A'isha returned to Medina where she lived in relative seclusion while developing a reputation for being learned in early Islamic law and traditions of the Prophet. She narrated more than 2000 Hadith recording what Muhammad had done and said. Many Muslim scholars believe that without A'isha's transmission of such a large number of Hadith, many Islamic teachings on various issues would have been lost.
A'isha recounted not only domestic concerns but also Muhammad's instructions on prayer, fasting, pilgrimage and other rituals. It has been suggested that one quarter of Shari'a law is based on A'isha's Hadith. Her knowledge of the Qur'an was extensive, and she could provide context for many revelations. A'isha was a gifted orator and poet, and an expert in literature and medicine.
Despite not being poor, A'isha lived an austere life, often giving away what she had to those in need. She regularly mended her clothes rather than replacing them and was generous with her time and knowledge. A'isha established schools for women and children and became a teacher to Muslim scholars. Eighty-eight important Muslim scholars studied under her instruction.
Al-Bukhari (810-70 CE), one of the most famous Sunni collectors and verifiers of Hadith, wrote a chapter on A'isha's role in forming the Hadith. Uthman used her as an advisor when compiling the standardised edition of the Qur'an.
Analysing A'isha's significance
A'isha provided Muslims with numerous examples of what the Prophet had done and said, and her Hadith have been quoted by Muslim scholars ever since. Muhammad is regarded as the ideal man by many Muslims—a complete person, not just a public Muslim. A'isha's Hadith reminded the world that Muhammad was also a highly spiritual person and a kind, loving man to his family and others.
A'isha holds a special status in the Islamic world. Muslims consider her privileged as a wife for several reasons:
Nine Reasons for A'isha's Privileged Status:
- She was Muhammad's only virgin wife
- Both her parents fled Mecca because they were persecuted for being Muslim
- Archangel Gabriel showed her likeness to Muhammad and instructed the Prophet to marry her
- In the affair of the slander, Allah declared her innocent through revelation
- She was tutored directly by the Prophet
- Muhammad had prayed in her company
- Muhammad received some of his revelations in her presence
- He died in her arms
- He was buried in her apartment, which later became part of the Prophet's mosque
However, according to Shi'a Islam, A'isha is not viewed as positively, given that she attacked Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet, in battle.
A'isha's contribution to Islam
A'isha's contributions to Islam were substantial and covered multiple areas:
- Education: She demonstrated the importance of education for women and advocated for women's significant role in Islam. She established schools and taught many important Muslim scholars
- Islamic texts: She was involved in the development of both the Qur'an and the Hadith, essential texts for all Muslims
- Legal influence: Her role in incidents such as the scandal of the slander influenced Qur'anic revelation and laws protecting women
- Historical preservation: As Muhammad's favourite wife, she ensured accurate and useful records of his life were preserved. She recounted many personal incidents that reveal the Prophet Muhammad's life and character
Impact of A'isha on Islam
A'isha's ongoing impact on Islam includes several significant areas:
Division between Sunni and Shi'a: A'isha's conflict with Ali may have significantly contributed to the split between Sunni and Shi'a Islam, the effects of which continue today.
Islamic scholarship: A'isha's scholarly opinions are still used as a guide for Muslim life. Her contribution to the Hadith remains of considerable significance, with approximately one quarter of Shari'a law based on her Hadith.
Women's role in Islam: A'isha influenced how women are perceived in Islam, for better or worse. Some Muslim scholars, such as Muhammad Arafa, use A'isha's example to argue that women should have no political role in Islam. Arafa wrote: "It is true that A'isha fought [at the Battle of the Camel]... it must not be forgotten that this individual act by A'isha was denounced as an error by the greatest of the companions and condemned by other wives of the Prophet. And in any case, A'isha regretted her act. It is thus not acceptable to base claims on A'isha's experience, which was considered to be an act of bid'a [innovation]."
Other scholars, such as Fatima Mernissi, suggest that A'isha's role and many of the Hadith she supplied have been sidelined to allow for a stronger patriarchal tone in Islam.
Model for women: Modern women in Islam look to A'isha as an example of a prominent, educated and authoritative woman. Islamic scholar Resit Haylamaz notes in his biography of A'isha that she was like a bridge between the time of the Prophet and the future of Islam.
Sufism
Sufism is the mystical branch of Islam that began approximately one hundred years after Muhammad's death. While both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims can be drawn to it, some Muslims do not view it favourably. Sufism offers an attractive doctrine of divine love and devotion that has also appealed to many non-Muslims.
Origins and definition of Sufism
The term "Sufi" likely comes from the Arabic word for "wool", referring to the white woollen robes worn by Muslim wandering holy men. Over time, their rough woollen garment (khirqa) became synonymous with those who dedicated themselves to mystical pursuits, and they were given the name Sufi. The increase in these wandering holy men may have been partly influenced by monks and priests who also wandered serving their community.
Tasawwuf (the spiritual development of a Muslim) may be linked to the same root word as Sufi. Alternatively, Sufi may be an Arabic rendering of the Greek word "sophos" meaning "wisdom." If this is true, Sufism links Islam with the Gnostic and Neo-Platonic traditions found around the Mediterranean. There may also be connections to the Hindu Bhakti tradition.
Core concepts of Sufism
Sufism emphasises an emotional and experiential relationship with God rather than merely following religious rules. The path of Sufism involves:
Master-disciple relationship: At the core of Sufism is the relationship between a spiritual master and their disciple. Many famous lineages of masters and disciples have developed over centuries, with some forming well-known orders of Sufism.
Self-effacement and nafs: The journey involves self-effacement—making oneself inconspicuous through modesty. Disciples must control their nafs (ego, psyche or soul). The manifestations of ego—selfishness, self-obsession and inability to see the world from outside one's viewpoint—must be controlled, purified and elevated to higher levels of being.
Spiritual practices: With the guidance of a Sufi master, disciples receive teachings and practices for purifying themselves. This might include one of the 99 names of Allah, special prayer formulas, the shahada (statement of Islamic belief), or verses from the Qur'an. Disciples recite phrases of remembrance to shut out selfish and earthly thoughts, dedicating their entire life to God.
Dhikr (remembrance): The recitation of prayers and phrases is called dhikr (or zikr). It involves the recitation of prayer and an increasing sense of devotion to Allah. In response, God gives the Sufi a series of insights or emotional charges that come from this recitation.
Ecstatic state: As Sufis realise the full emotional potential of loving God, they move into an ecstatic state where the world comes alive in a new way. This state of blissful connection can be achieved using bodily movement, chanting, meditation, music and other inspirational activities.
Esoteric and exoteric meaning
In Sufism, understanding both the inner and outer meaning of the Qur'an is crucial. The idea that there is a secret meaning in the Qur'an is based on verse 3:7. Sufis interpret this verse to mean that every verse in the Qur'an has:
- An inner or hidden (esoteric, in Arabic: batin) meaning
- An outer (exoteric, in Arabic: zahir) meaning
Sufis suggest this verse also explains that the wise can access these inner meanings.
The Qur'an 3:7 states: "It is He who has sent down on you this Book, in which there are verses explicit in meaning and content and decisive: they are the core of the Book, others being allegories. Those in whose hearts is swerving to pursue what is allegorical in it, seeking to cause dissension, and seeking to make it open to arbitrary interpretation, although none knows its interpretation save Allah. And those firmly rooted in knowledge say: 'We believe in it (in the entirety of the verses, both explicit and allegorical); as is from our Lord'; yet none derives admonition except the people of discernment."
Significant Sufi figures
Rabi'a al-Adawiyya (717-801 CE)
Celebrated as one of the first great Sufis, Rabi'a gave Sufism definition with her overwhelming sense of love for God. She was considered eccentric and never married. The most famous story about her involves carrying a flaming torch and bucket of water through the town of Basra. When asked what she was doing, she replied: "I want to douse the fires of hell and burn the rewards of paradise. They block the way to Allah. I don't want to worship Him from fear of punishment or for the promise of reward, but simply for the love of Allah itself."
Rumi (1207-1273 CE)
Rumi is one of the greatest Sufi poets. His major theme was tawhid—how he was unified with God. His ability to express in words the struggle of spiritual development and the growth of a personal relationship with God sets him apart. His six-volume poem, the Masnavi-ye Ma'navi, is available in several English translations. The Mevlevi Order of Sufis (known for their whirling dervishes) was founded by Rumi's followers after his death. Rumi's mystical friendship with Shams Tabrizi as master and disciple led to their becoming inseparable. The year 2007 was declared International Year of Rumi.
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan (1948-1997 CE)
Nusrat was an extraordinarily versatile Pakistani singer who specialised in Qawwali—Sufi devotional singing. He took phrases from Islamic prayers and passages from the Qur'an and transformed them into ecstatic flights of vocal virtuosity.
Sufism's influence on Islam
Some believe Sufism's doctrine is so universal and based on human nature that one does not have to be Muslim to be Sufi. Groups of Christian Sufis exist, for example. The great Sufi poet Rumi called to people of all faiths to join him in the love of God, whether Muslim or not. Sufi masters are venerated by people who are not Muslim. Hindus and Sikhs in India, for example, are just as likely as Muslims to visit some Sufi tombs.
However, Sufism has a long tradition within, and close connection to, Islam. Sufi doctrine has been passed down from master to disciple for more than 1300 years.
Sufism has been influenced by other traditions and, in turn, has influenced Jewish Kabbalah and Christian mysticism. This openness to influence allows some to suggest one need not be Muslim to be Sufi.
Adding depth to Islamic practice: For Muslims, Sufism adds deeper meaning and emotion to the general requirements of Islam. For some people, Sufism is the most attractive aspect of the faith, and many outsiders first convert to Islam through their interest in Sufism.
Challenge to traditional Islam: Sufism also presents challenges to Islam. Certain expressions of Sufism can undermine the exoteric, ritual and legal aspects of the religion. Its practices can place lesser importance on outward actions, prayers and public practices such as mosque attendance. Instead, it emphasises small private group meetings, meditation, devotion and emotional life. For its part, Sufism constantly struggles against Muslims who seek to reduce Islam to a religion that is simply legalistic (rigid adherence to law) and literalist (strict, exact interpretation).
Social dimensions: Over centuries, Sufi orders have proved to be havens for both social misfits and daring thinkers. Many Sufis have turned their backs on normal society and family life, often following a form of monasticism not usually encouraged in Islam. Much Sufi poetry and song lyrics refer to the love of Allah as being as intoxicating as wine. Wine has become a significant symbol in Sufi poetry and thought, yet wine itself is forbidden in Islam.
Contribution of Sufism to Islam
Sufism has significantly influenced the development of spirituality in Islam:
Spiritual dimension: Islam in its simplest form requires believers to perform specific actions—prayers, pilgrimage, fasting. These requirements can become dry rules followed automatically unless special attention is given to spiritual experiences. As Islam spread across large geographies and populations, early scholars developed legal codes. This emphasis on law made Islam seem rule-bound. Early scholars and mystics emerged to warn people to focus on inner dimensions of worship and spiritual experience of the divine. This was the birth of Sufism.
Emotional depth: Sufism introduced a mystical tradition into Islam and enriched how Islam can be understood. It allows Muslims to explore the emotional depths of their religious nature and turn their faith into an intimate, personal act of devotion to God. Sufism enables Islam to appeal to many more dimensions of the human spirit.
Cultural enrichment: Sufism has inspired some of the greatest poets, singers, musicians and dancers in the Islamic world. It has allowed the expansion of Islamic arts and Islamic civilisation, especially during periods when Islam seemed to stagnate.
Impact of Sufism on Islam
Survival during stagnation: While Sufism was originally treated with wariness, it is the form of Islam that survived the period of stagnation following Islam's initial expansion until the nineteenth century. When legalism sometimes took over Islamic expression, Sufi mystics presented an Islam that was spiritual, experiential and attractive to the changing world.
Spread of Islam: Sufism spread Islam through the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. It encouraged Muslims to focus on devotional Islam and self-improvement in ways still significant today.
Modern appeal: The emphasis on "divine love" and "spiritual closeness to God" in addition to law and jurisprudence appeals to modern Westerners as well as those raised in Islam. Arguably, Sufism is the school of Islam growing fastest in the modern world.
Artistic influence: Sufism's influence is profound not only in the mystical parts of Islam but also in its arts: music, painting, poetry and literature. Sufis established orders and houses welcoming pilgrims from all religious groups. Sufism continues to attract many non-Muslims to the Islamic faith today.
Key vocabulary
- Polygamy: Having more than one spouse at one time
- Sunni: The majority expression of Islam; followers claim to follow the Qur'an and sunna (example) of Prophet Muhammad
- Shi'a (or Shi'ite): The second-largest Islamic group; Shi'a Muslims believe Muhammad's descendants are best suited to lead the Muslim community
- Hadith: Collections of sayings and actions of Prophet Muhammad
- Shari'a: Islamic law derived from the Qur'an and Hadith
- Hereditary: Passed down within a family
- Umayyad dynasty: The first Muslim dynasty; ruled 661-750 CE
- Bid'a: Innovation; a term (generally negative) used to refer to those who seek to bring new ideas and interpretations into Islam
- Nafs: The individual self, psyche, ego or soul
- Self-effacement: Making oneself inconspicuous through modesty or timidity
- Ecstatic state: A state of blissful connection; achieved using bodily movement, chanting, meditation, music and other inspirational activities
- Shahada: The first pillar of Islam; the statement of belief that "There is no god but the God and Muhammad is his messenger"
- Dhikr (or zikr): Ritual utterance of God's name or God's praise
- Esoteric: Intended to be understood by few people; private (or inner) knowledge
- Exoteric: Intended to be understood by the general public; public (or outer) knowledge
- Khirqa: Woollen robe associated with Sufis; can also refer to the initiation of a Sufi
- Tasawwuf: An area of Islamic study focusing on spiritual development
- Legalistic: Rigid adherence to the law
- Literalist: A strict, exact approach to understanding religion and religious writing
Key Points to Remember:
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A'isha bint Abu Bakr was one of Muhammad's most beloved wives and a crucial contributor to early Islam. She transmitted over 2000 Hadith, established schools, taught 88 prominent scholars, and influenced approximately one quarter of Shari'a law.
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A'isha's political involvement, particularly her role in the Battle of the Camel (656 CE) against Ali, may have contributed to the Sunni-Shi'a split and continues to influence debates about women's roles in Islamic leadership.
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Sufism is the mystical branch of Islam emphasising divine love, devotion and emotional connection with God. It developed approximately 100 years after Muhammad's death and offers a spiritual dimension to Islamic practice.
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Key Sufi concepts include the master-disciple relationship, self-effacement, control of nafs (ego), dhikr (remembrance), and the distinction between esoteric (inner) and exoteric (outer) meanings of the Qur'an.
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Sufism's impact has been profound, helping Islam survive periods of stagnation, spreading the faith through India and Southeast Asia, enriching Islamic arts and poetry, and remaining one of the fastest-growing expressions of Islam in the modern world.