Core Ethical Teachings (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes
Core Ethical Teachings
What is Shari'a?
Shari'a is the comprehensive moral and legal code that governs Islamic life. It draws from the Qur'an, the teachings of Prophet Muhammad, and other Islamic sources to provide guidance on how Muslims should live.
Islamic law operates across three main areas of life that together form a complete framework for religious, social, and communal living:
- 'Ibadat – ritual regulations governing worship and religious practice
- Mu'amalat – rules of social relations and interactions between people
- Imama – theory of collective organisation and community structure
Under these broad categories, Shari'a addresses practical matters including prayer, almsgiving, fasting, marriage, divorce, partnerships, debts, wills and many other legal and social concerns. The final corpus of Shari'a represents a blend of pre-Islamic customs and traditions that have been modified and supported by Qur'anic legal principles and Islamic ethical conviction. In some cases, non-Islamic laws and customs were reconciled with Islamic religious principles to create a workable legal system.
Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh)
Islamic jurisprudence, known as fiqh, refers to the scholarly interpretation and human understanding of Shari'a. For 14 centuries, it has been an ongoing development responding to changing circumstances and geographical contexts.
Historical development
As Islam rapidly spread across the Middle East and beyond, a legal system was needed to maintain law, order and a harmonious society. Over time, many different schools of thought emerged regarding how Shari'a and jurisprudence should be interpreted and applied.
Because the Muslim world was geographically vast, independent schools of law developed with varying methodologies. These schools took into account local cultures, climates, and conditions, while also exercising freedom in interpretive approaches.
The foundations of Shari'a were the unambiguous commands and prohibitions found in the Qur'an and Hadith, along with the legal principles contained within them. However, when points of law arose on which the Qur'an and Hadith offered no clear guidance, scholars needed additional methods of reasoning.
The closure of interpretation
From the twelfth century onwards, the development of new ideas was discouraged, and the areas in which personal reasoning might be deployed were increasingly limited. By this time, Shari'a had become comprehensive, embracing all human activities and defining the relations of people with God and with each other.
It became the unifying legal code for a vast geographical area stretching from Spain to India, even though multiple empires ruled different regions.
Sources of Islamic ethical authority
The Qur'an as principal religious authority
The Qur'an stands as the first and greatest authority for Muslims seeking guidance on any issue in their lives. What makes Islamic religious communities distinctive is their autonomy – levels of authority in Islam do not depend on personal control by a religious leader, but on reference to sacred texts and established traditions of interpretation.
Over the past 1400 years, numerous schools have developed their own traditions of Qur'anic interpretation. While one might think this need to derive rules about all human actions from the Qur'an would make it difficult for Muslims to respond to modern issues, the Qur'an's principles can be applied to contemporary concerns.
Worked Example: Environmental Protection
Although the Qur'an does not directly mention modern concepts like climate change, it contains verses about how Allah gave the world in custodianship to humans, making them accountable to look after the planet.
Application process:
- Identify relevant Qur'anic principles (stewardship of the Earth)
- Understand the underlying rationale (accountability to Allah)
- Apply these principles to modern environmental issues
- Develop a theology and ethics of environmental protection
From these verses, a comprehensive theology and ethics of environmental protection can be developed that addresses contemporary ecological challenges.
The Hadith as secondary religious authority
When Prophet Muhammad was not transmitting the words of Allah, he was a man who faced the practicalities of daily life and guided the early Islamic community in Medina. His words, deeds, likes and dislikes, as remembered by the earliest Muslims, are preserved in the form of the Hadith. These constitute the second-most important authority for Muslims after the Qur'an.
Worked Example: Environmental Care Through Hadith
Using the example of environmentalism again, the Prophet said a great deal about the care of animals and the importance of looking after trees and planting them.
How Hadith guides modern practice:
- Scholars identify relevant sayings about environmental care
- The Prophet's example of caring for animals and trees is examined
- These teachings are interpreted for modern ecological contexts
- Practical guidance for Muslims on environmental issues is developed
These sayings can be used to define a religious response to ecological issues by Muslims, providing practical guidance based on prophetic example.
Core Ethical Teaching: Prohibition of Alcohol
Core ethical teachings often appear in both the Qur'an and the Hadith. The prohibition of alcohol consumption is one such example. A Hadith narrated by Bukhari (7:69:493) records:
"The revelation about the prohibition of alcoholic drinks was revealed; and alcoholic drinks are extracted from five things: Grapes, dates, honey, wheat and barley. And the alcoholic drink is that which confuses and stupefies the mind."
This teaching emphasises acting with good intentions and encouraging socially acceptable behaviour.
Methods of legal reasoning
Ijma (consensus)
Ijma is a process whereby authoritative Muslim jurists come to a consensus about a religious or ethical issue. The proliferation of Hadith caused problems for the interpretation of Shari'a, as different scholars might consider different Hadith to be authentic sayings of Muhammad. This could lead to multiple solutions to the same ethical issue.
Each scholar may evaluate which Hadith are authentic and thus serve as a foundation for their legal ruling. Over time, one of these solutions stands the test of time and is endorsed by other scholars, and a consensus gradually emerges.
An important Hadith states: "My community will never agree upon an error." Therefore, if the community, as embodied in its legal experts, came to agree on a point, that agreement gained significant authority.
The process of ijma existed from early centuries, but it was first formally proposed as a key source in Shari'a by the jurist al-Shafi'i (767–820 CE). It should be noted that differing opinions can emerge and it may take considerable time for a true consensus to become evident. Steadily, just about all legal and ethical cases were covered at great length and more consensus developed.
Qiyas (analogy)
Qiyas is the process of deductive analogy in which the teachings of the Hadith are compared and contrasted with those of the Qur'an and applied to decisions over time. This method involves arguing by analogy and applying to a current problem the reasoning and conclusion that had already been reached on a comparable issue. In this way, precedent forms a level of legal authority in Islam.
Qiyas includes the concept of precedents in decision-making, but only when there is a common rationale between two different cases. This ensures that analogical reasoning is based on sound principles rather than superficial similarities.
Worked Example: Cocaine Prohibition Through Qiyas
A Muslim may wish to know about cocaine use. Although this drug is not mentioned in early Islamic texts, wine is. Here's how qiyas applies:
Step 1: Identify the original ruling Wine (alcohol) is prohibited in Islam
Step 2: Determine the rationale The prohibition exists because wine causes intoxication and leads to loss of self-control
Step 3: Find the common rationale Cocaine also causes intoxication and loss of self-control
Step 4: Apply the ruling by analogy Based on the common rationale – intoxication and loss of self-control – Muslim scholars have declared cocaine to be prohibited
The analogy is valid because both substances share the same harmful characteristic that justifies prohibition.
The division of halal and haram
Islamic ethics divides actions, foods, and behaviours into categories of permissible (halal) and forbidden (haram).
Halal (permissible)
Halal is a term meaning permissible, or what is permissible under Islamic law. While it is often applied to foods (such as meat prepared following Islamic instructions), it has a much wider meaning. Halal encompasses all actions that are permissible under Islamic law and applies to many aspects of life and behaviour, including relationships, business practices, and personal conduct.
Haram (forbidden)
Haram is the opposite of halal – it means forbidden or prohibited. In the narrow sense, it refers to Islamic dietary laws. Certain things forbidden in Hebrew scripture for Jewish people are also forbidden for Muslims, such as eating pig meat. For Muslims, consumption of alcohol (such as wine) is also haram.
However, the term can be applied much more widely to anything that goes against Islamic law or norms. It is applied to relationships and behaviour, or any aspects of life that are prohibited under Islamic law. Understanding what is haram helps Muslims avoid actions that would compromise their faith and ethical standing.
Exam guidance
When analysing Islamic ethical teachings:
- Always identify which source of authority is being used (Qur'an, Hadith, ijma, or qiyas)
- Explain the reasoning process, not just the conclusion
- Consider how ancient principles are applied to modern situations
- Show awareness that different schools of thought may reach different conclusions
When evaluating ethical decisions:
- Consider the hierarchy of sources (Qur'an first, then Hadith, then consensus and analogy)
- Assess whether the reasoning by analogy is appropriate
- Recognise that some issues may take time to reach consensus
- Show understanding of how Shari'a balances tradition with practical application
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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Shari'a is the comprehensive Islamic legal and moral code derived from the Qur'an, Hadith, and other Islamic sources, covering all aspects of life
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The Qur'an is the primary authority for all Islamic ethical decisions, with traditional methods of interpretation applied to modern issues
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The Hadith serves as the secondary authority, preserving Muhammad's words, actions, and preferences to guide Muslims in practical matters
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Ijma (consensus) and qiyas (analogy) are methods of reasoning used when the Qur'an and Hadith do not provide clear guidance on an issue
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Halal (permissible) and haram (forbidden) categorise all actions, foods, and behaviours according to Islamic law
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Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) has developed over 14 centuries, with different schools adapting principles to local contexts while maintaining core values