Further Significant People and Schools of Thought (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes

Further Significant People and Schools of Thought

Introduction

Judaism has been shaped by numerous influential figures throughout its history, from biblical times to the modern era. These individuals and movements have contributed to the development of Jewish thought, practice, and identity. This note examines key people who have left lasting impacts on Jewish religious life, alongside important schools of thought that continue to influence contemporary Judaism.

Significant People in Jewish History

Deborah (circa eleventh century BCE)

Historical context

Deborah lived during a critical period when the Hebrew tribes were settling in the Land of Israel around 1100 BCE. This era saw conflict between the Hebrew people and the Canaanites who already inhabited the region. The Canaanites practised polytheistic fertility rituals, which contrasted sharply with the developing monotheism of the Hebrew tribes.

During this settlement period, God raised up leaders called judges to defend the Hebrew people and settle disputes among the tribes. These judges functioned as civil and military leaders and were considered charismatic—meaning they were specially gifted by God to fulfil their roles. Notable judges included Othniel, Ehud, Samson, Gideon, and Deborah.

Life and leadership

Deborah stands out as one of seven prophetesses mentioned in rabbinic literature. Her story appears in Judges chapters 4 and 5, with chapter 4 providing a prose account and chapter 5 containing 'The Song of Deborah'—one of the earliest examples of Hebrew poetry preserved in the Bible. This song may have originated from an ancient collection called 'The Book of the Wars of the Lord' mentioned in Numbers 21:14.

She was married to Lappidoth (meaning 'torches', possibly referring to her fiery nature), though some Jewish traditions suggest that Barak, the military commander in her story, may have actually been her husband.

Military victory

When God instructed Deborah to tell Barak to raise an army against the Canaanite commander Sisera, Barak showed reluctance and agreed only if Deborah accompanied him. Deborah consented but prophesied that the victory would be credited to a woman rather than to Barak. During the battle, Sisera escaped and hid in the tent of a woman named Jael. While he slept, Jael killed him by driving a tent peg through his head. Following this victory, the Hebrew tribes enjoyed 40 years of peace.

Contribution to Judaism

Deborah's story reveals several important themes. It can be interpreted as a critique of male leadership that lacks faith in God, particularly in contrast to Barak's timidity. However, the song in chapter 5 praises both Deborah and Barak without criticism, acknowledging their shared leadership. Deborah's account demonstrates a woman who trusted God during a difficult period in Hebrew history, particularly when compared to Barak's lack of faith.

Impact on Judaism

Deborah is remembered as a figure of authority, trust, and inspired leadership. She belongs to a group of significant women in the Tanakh—including the Egyptian midwives (Exodus 1:15–19), Ruth, and Esther—who demonstrated faith and trust in God during challenging circumstances. These women served as models for Jewish women in their own era and continue to inspire today.

Isaiah (eighth century BCE)

Historical background

Isaiah, whose name means 'salvation is from God', was one of the prophets who challenged the rulers and people of Israel during the eighth century BCE. He prophesied before the Babylonian exile, during a period of great political instability. Isaiah is traditionally regarded as the author of the biblical book that bears his name, which contains 66 chapters of prophecy.

Life and ministry

Isaiah was the son of Amoz and married a woman identified only as 'a prophetess', though it remains unclear whether she carried out prophetic ministry herself or bore the title because of her marriage. Isaiah had two sons with symbolic names: Shear-jashub (meaning 'a remnant will return') and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (meaning 'to speed the spoil he hurries the prey'). These names themselves conveyed prophetic messages about Israel's future.

According to rabbinic literature, Isaiah descended from Judah and Tamar. He prophesied in Judah (the southern kingdom of the divided nation) during the reigns of kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, beginning around 740 BCE. His ministry likely lasted approximately 45 years, spanning the eighth and seventh centuries BCE.

Political context

Isaiah spoke during turbulent years when Israel (the northern kingdom) was captured by the Assyrians. He possibly witnessed the siege of Jerusalem by the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III. During these troubled times, Isaiah advised the kings not to resist the Assyrians but to accept them as God's tool for disciplining Israel. His message was that Judah should trust in God and return to Him. This advice contradicted the false prophets who advocated military resistance.

When King Hezekiah began religious reforms, Isaiah supported him. However, when Hezekiah sought alliances with Egypt and Babylon against Assyria, Isaiah strongly criticized the king. Later, when Assyria under Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem, Isaiah urged Hezekiah to resist and spoke of God's coming judgement on the Assyrians.

Isaiah's last prophetic appearance is dated around 701 BCE, meaning he prophesied from approximately 740 to 700 BCE. He probably lived into the reign of Manasseh. While the Bible contains no specific information about his death, tradition suggests he was martyred under that king, possibly by being sawn in half, sometime after 687 BCE.

Prophetic message and themes

Isaiah's message appears in the Book of Isaiah in the Tanakh. His call to prophetic ministry in chapter 6 emphasizes God's holiness—a word he uses more than 30 times, more than all other books of the Tanakh combined. His message offered hope and trust in God, with a universalist scope that called all nations to come to God (Isaiah 2:2–3).

The Book of Isaiah presents God as the ruler of the whole world, controlling all nations. It contains judgements against various nations (chapters 9–23), including Judah (chapters 28–31). These judgements address worship of other gods, breaking the covenant, and acts of injustice. Despite these warnings, the book offers hope for God's people, with many promises of a Messiah who will bring in the Messianic kingdom (chapters 34–44).

One distinctive feature is the four 'servant songs' about a leader who is abused yet leads the nations. Judaism interprets these songs as references to the Jewish people. The book concludes with a message of hope for a righteous ruler who will govern the whole Earth. Isaiah's imagery of the Messianic kingdom at the end of time is hauntingly beautiful (see Isaiah 2:2–4 and 65:25).

Emphasis on justice

Several great themes emerge:

• God rules the whole world and cannot be defeated
• God will establish His rule on earth, which will feature just governance and a time of peace

Contribution to Judaism

Isaiah has strongly contributed to Jewish beliefs. The Book of Isaiah affirms God's greatness, His role as judge, and also His mercy and compassion. Isaiah's message, contained in 66 chapters, was a message of hope and trust in God, universalist in scope and offering a call to all nations to come to God.

The prophetic messages describe God as ruler of the whole world, controlling all nations. Isaiah challenged injustice and spoke of the coming Babylonian exile, but also of the safe return of the people and the coming rule of God. His book is concerned with social justice as much as worship, emphasizing that ethical behaviour cannot be separated from religious observance.

Impact on Judaism

The Book of Isaiah has been the subject of debate among biblical scholars from several religious traditions. Many have suggested there were two or three authors. However, most accept that it should be treated as a complete literary unit, and that arguments about different authorship do little to detract from its major themes and message.

Hillel and Shamai (110 BCE–10 CE)

Introduction

Hillel and Shamai are usually discussed together because they represent two contrasting approaches to Jewish law during the same period in the same setting. Their debates and disagreements illuminate important questions about how to interpret and apply Jewish law.

Hillel's life and background

Hillel the Elder lived in Jerusalem from approximately 110 BCE to 10 CE. He was contemporary with King Herod the Great, and his thinking and teaching influenced the founder of Christianity, Jesus Christ, who was born while Hillel was alive. Hillel is regarded as one of the most significant figures in Jewish history and in the development of Jewish thought.

Hillel was born in Babylon, supposedly descended from the tribe of Benjamin (on his father's side) and King David (on his mother's side). Of his family, only his brother Shebna is named. Hillel studied the Torah while working as a woodcutter, then travelled to Jerusalem to study the Hebrew Bible in 70 BCE, when he was about 40 years old.

The Talmud writers generally agree with Hillel's rulings compared with those of his contemporary, Shamai. Eventually, due to his wisdom, Hillel gained an enormous following with thousands of students and became president of the Sanhedrin (the Jewish court). His only official title recorded is Ha Zaken (the Elder). Hillel died about 10 CE, having lived for more than 100 years as a highly regarded member of the Jewish community in Judea. It was said of him: 'let a man be always humble and patient like Hillel, and not passionate like Shamai'. His grandson, Gamaliel, is mentioned in the Christian New Testament as the teacher of St Paul (Acts 22:3).

Shamai's background

Shamai was a Jewish rabbi who lived from 50 BCE to 30 CE. He served as vice-president of the Sanhedrin under Hillel and became president after Hillel's death. The disciples of Hillel are often contrasted with those of Shamai, and their disagreements and controversies covered many areas of Jewish law. Hillel was considered more gentle and flexible in his interpretations, while Shamai was more rigid.

Examples of disagreements

Hillel's contribution to Judaism

Hundreds of rulings by Hillel are recorded, along with some of his astute sayings. He made a ruling that ensured the payment of debt even though the Sabbath year called for their cancellation. His ruling aimed to ensure the concept of 'repair of the world' (tikkun olam). Another ruling relates to the sale of houses. Hillel was concerned about applying Jewish beliefs to the practical concerns of daily life.

Hillel taught people to care for themselves to enable them to care for others, particularly members of the Jewish community. He was not an exclusivist, however. He was keen to 'bring men to the Law' and to proselytise. He taught the importance of studying the Torah and reliance on God and a love of peace. However, he was also keen to challenge the restrictive teachings of his contemporary Shamai.

Impact on Judaism

Hillel was a significant Jewish leader and scholar when the land of Israel was occupied by the Roman Empire. His rulings and decisions sought to reach out further to the community than the Judaism of Shamai. He is noted as the one who embodied the moral and religious teachings of Judaism and who restored the art of biblical exposition. The 'seven rules of Hillel' formed the basis for Rabbi Ishmael's 'thirteen rules' in the systematic development of biblical exposition and the development of Halacha (Jewish law) from the Torah.

Beruriah (second century CE)

Life and personal tragedy

Beruriah lived in the second century CE and is noted as a sage in the Talmud—a scholar worthy of recognition, highly unusual for a woman at that time. Her opinions were considered to reveal great breadth of knowledge, and she once taught the rabbis 300 pieces of Jewish law in one day (Pes. 62b). She was married to the scholar Rabbi Meir and they lived in the Land of Israel, which had been renamed 'Palestine' by the Romans.

Scholarship and character

Beruriah was very involved in discussions of Jewish law (Halacha) and challenged others in debate, often earning the praise of other rabbis. She was known for her sharp mind, revealed in her quick wit and often caustic jibes at scholars and scribes. She was seen as a compassionate person, and her opinions came to be respected above other scholars.

The death of her sons

Teaching about compassion

On one occasion, Beruriah was so upset by her husband praying for the death of a neighbour that she taught him to pray for the repentance of the wicked, not their doom. She did so by explaining Psalm 104:35. This story is quoted in the Midrash on Psalm 118.

Legends about her death

Various legends relate to Beruriah's death. One such legend, partially alluded to in the Talmud, seeks to explain it. She had criticised a statement that women were light-headed. Her husband, to prove her wrong, sent one of his disciples to attempt to seduce her. The student succeeded and Beruriah was so ashamed that she committed suicide. Rabbi Meir was so distressed that he exiled himself from Palestine to Babylon. Another story says that Beruriah and Rabbi Meir had to flee after the Romans executed her father and sold her mother as a slave and her sister as a prostitute. The details are not clear.

Contribution to Judaism

Beruriah contributed greatly to the understanding of exegesis. She developed the approach that a verse in scripture should be examined in its context. Her interpretations of the Tanakh are greatly respected and her role as a scholar admired. Beruriah showed considerable respect for Jewish law and practice but urged that kindness and consideration be displayed rather than just legalism. Beruriah is worthy of note because of the status given to her as a sage in the Talmud.

Impact on Judaism

Rabbi Solomon Isaac (Rashi) (1040–1105 CE)

Early life and education

Rabbi Shlomo Yitzaki (Isaac) is better known by the name Rashi (an acronym using the letters from RAbbi SHlomo Isaac). Rashi was born on 22 February 1040 CE in Troyes in northern France. He was an only child who was taught the Torah by his father when he was five years old. His father continued to be his teacher until he died while Rashi was still a youth.

Rashi married at 17 and went to learn in the rabbinical school (yeshiva) in Worms, Germany. After his teacher died, he went to study in Mainz. He was taught by some of the most important scholars of his day, and he developed a good understanding of the oral traditions of the Talmud and the forms of argument and logic contained in the holy books.

Career and family

Rashi returned to Troyes at age 25 and joined the rabbinical court there, assuming leadership after the death of the head of the court. His mother also died around this time. In 1070 he founded his own yeshiva and attracted many disciples. It is probable that Rashi also worked as a winemaker to help support his family. He developed a reputation as a fine scholar and attracted students and disciples.

In 1096, the first of the Christian Crusades (called the People's Crusade) moved through the Lorraine region of France and killed about 12,000 Jewish people. Rashi wrote several selichot (mournful poems) about the tragedy, some of which are still recited in Jewish services of remembrance such as Rosh Hashanah. He also composed the cursing poem 'Titnem Leherpa'. Rashi went to Worms to help rebuild the Jewish community and the destroyed synagogue.

In Talmuds published today, Rashi's commentaries are included on every page and the comments from the Tosafists also surround the text.

Death and legacy

Rashi died on 13 July 1105 when he was 65 years old. He is buried at Troyes, and it is unlikely he travelled far from his home. However, his scholarship and writings have travelled the world over. Rashi's influence has also been honoured with a Jewish typeface known as 'Rashi script', developed in the fifteenth century.

Contribution to Judaism

Rashi also wrote a commentary on the Tanakh covering all books except Chronicles. When the Hebrew Bible was first printed in 1517, it included Rashi's commentary. It grew out of his lectures at the yeshiva and is based on the questions his students asked. His commentary on the Torah (Chumash) is especially significant. Even today many study 'Chumash with Rashi' and it is considered a standard text for Orthodox Jewish people.

Impact on Judaism

Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786 CE)

Early life and education

Moses Mendelssohn was born in Dessau, Germany, on 6 September 1729. He was a German Jewish philosopher who has been identified as the driving force behind the Jewish enlightenment (Haskalah) of the eighteenth century. Moses Mendelssohn has been called 'the third Moses', following the Moses of the Torah and Moses Maimonides, bringing new insights and a new era in Jewish history.

Moses was the son of Mendel of Dessau, thus the name Mendelssohn (Mendel's son). Mendel was a poor scribe who, with a local rabbi David Frankel, taught his son the Hebrew Bible and Talmud. Moses was not a well child, having developed curvature of the spine. When Rabbi Frankel went to Berlin in 1743, Moses soon followed at the age of 14.

Career development

In 1750, Mendelssohn was appointed to teach the children of a wealthy silk merchant, Isaac Bernhard, and soon became his bookkeeper and partner. In 1754, Mendelssohn met Gotthold Lessing, a playwright who had written a drama (Die Juden) intended to prove that Jewish people could possess nobility. Lessing believed he had met that man in Moses Mendelssohn. The two became friends and philosophical partners, working together and producing works that achieved acclaim.

Mendelssohn achieved prominence and married Fromet Guggenheim in 1762. He was given the status of 'protected Jew' by the King of Prussia, which meant he could live freely in Berlin. He moved in circles that included the philosophers Thomas Abbt and Immanuel Kant, even competing against them to win a prize for an essay.

Religious controversies

Mendelssohn was approached in 1763 by a Christian theological student, Johann Kasper Lavater, to ascertain his views about Jesus Christ. He responded that he respected Jesus as long as he kept within the limits of Orthodox Judaism. That led to a prolonged literary debate between the two, during which Moses Mendelssohn's health deteriorated. Lavater urged Mendelssohn to convert to Christianity.

He became involved in a series of publications trying to defend his position. Mendelssohn caught a cold while taking a manuscript to the publisher and died on 4 January 1786.

Moses Mendelssohn had six children, of whom only two remained faithful to Judaism. His grandchildren, Fanny and Felix Mendelssohn, became well-known composers and were both Christians.

Contribution to Judaism

In 1767, Mendelssohn wrote a work on the immortality of the soul, a popular topic of discussion at the time. Phadon, or About Soul's Immortality, was an immediate and international success, and Mendelssohn was even called 'the German Socrates'. Lessing's play Nathan the Wise, written in 1779, was about a Jewish hero possibly modelled on Mendelssohn.

Mendelssohn wrote about philosophy more often than he wrote about religion. He developed an understanding of God as a perfect, wise being. He accepted the existence of God and had faith in God's wisdom, righteousness, goodness, and mercy. He accepted revelation but declared it could not contradict reason. Reason could lead to the reality of God and an acceptance of the immortality of the soul.

In 1783, Moses Mendelssohn published Jerusalem, a call for the freedom of conscience and non-interference. This work was quickly translated into several languages and earned praise from Immanuel Kant. The application of reason to Jewish beliefs and religious plurality was to be shown in moral pragmatism.

Impact on Judaism

Abraham Geiger (1810–1874 CE)

Historical context

The early nineteenth century was a time when science and reason were championed and tradition was challenged. This was the era of Abraham Geiger, who sought to make Judaism modern using a reasoned and scientific approach.

Life and education

Abraham Geiger was a German rabbi who is considered the founder of Reform or Progressive Judaism. He was born in 1810 and as a child began to doubt the teachings of Judaism, particularly the traditional aspects that emphasized the concept of the Jewish people as the 'chosen people' of God. He was an adept scholar and began his writing career at the age of 17, comparing the different styles of the Mishnah, the biblical law, and the Talmudic law.

Geiger's friends supported him at Heidelberg University, where he studied philology (the study of language and literature) and focused on Syriac, Hebrew, and the classics. He also studied archaeology, the Hebrew Bible, and philosophy. After a year he went to Bonn University and formed, with Samson Hirsch, a society for Jewish students to promote Jewish values. He preached his first sermon to this society in 1830. Geiger and Hirsch later became bitter enemies on separate sides of the Jewish movements.

Career as rabbi

Geiger discovered that as a Jewish person he was unable to become a university professor, so he became a rabbi. He continued to write while he was rabbi of Wiesbaden and produced two scholarly journals, which became a forum for the writings of other contemporary scholars.

He was a moderate scholar who based his ideas on his study of history, rather than a concept of divine revelation. Geiger opposed the concept of a Jewish national identity, a concept that would emerge in the Zionist movement in the years following his death. Abraham Geiger died in 1874.

Contribution to Judaism

Geiger met with other rabbis who wanted to bring reform, and they were concerned that they might be seen as taking steps to oppose the rise of anti-Semitism. Geiger did not seek a revolution but rather a change, a reformation, within Judaism. Reform Judaism (called Progressive Judaism in Australia) was the result of Geiger's efforts.

Geiger's reforms drew a response from many Jewish people who wanted to update their worship and approach to life. He brought a sense of holiness into a world that was exploring science and truth and tried to ensure that any practice seen as not fitting the modern world was abolished. Thus, references to the Messiah, the 'return to Zion', dietary laws, wearing of the kippah, tefillin, and tallit were all challenged.

Impact on Judaism

Rabbi Isaac Abraham Hacohen Kook (Rav Kook) (1865–1935 CE)

Early life and education

Abraham Isaac Kook was born in Latvia, part of imperial Russia, in 1865. He became known as Rav Kook, or HaRav (THE Rabbi). His father was a rabbi, a member of the most significant Latvian yeshiva (rabbinic school); his mother's father was a member of the Hassidim.

Rav Kook was reported to be a child prodigy. At the age of 18 he joined a yeshiva and stayed for about a year and a half. In 1886, at the age of 22, he married Batsheva, daughter of the rabbi of Ponevezh in Lithuania who became the chief Ashkenazi rabbi of Jerusalem. In 1887, Rav Kook became rabbi of Zaumel in Lithuania. His wife died a year later and he was persuaded by his father-in-law to marry her cousin. He became rabbi of the much larger Bausk in 1895.

Ministry in Palestine

Rav Kook began to write between 1901 and 1905, developing his ideas in support of a Jewish state in Israel as well as other works on spirituality and morality. In 1904 he moved to Palestine, then controlled by the Ottomans. He became rabbi of Jaffa in Palestine (now Israel), which included developing agricultural settlements, now called kibbutzim. These were secular settlements, but Rav Kook was involved in introducing the Torah and Halacha into the settlements.

Time in Europe

Rav Kook was in Europe when World War I broke out in 1914, and he was forced to remain in Switzerland and England. He became rabbi of a synagogue in Whitechapel in London. In England, he was involved in formulating the Balfour Declaration in 1917, the British government's promise to help create a Jewish homeland in Palestine, which was later incorporated into the League of Nations Mandate over Palestine and helped in the creation of the state of Israel.

After the war, he returned to Palestine and became chief Ashkenazi rabbi of Jerusalem in 1921, founding his own yeshiva, Mercaz HaRav, in 1924, where students could study the Torah and Talmud.

Teachings and philosophy

As chief rabbi, Rav Kook developed a leadership in Palestine that included both a strict application of Halacha and openness to new ideas. He was also concerned with maintaining open communication between the various groups emerging in Palestine—secular Zionists, religious Zionists, and non-Zionist Orthodox. He believed that the formation of a Jewish state was part of a divine plan to bring in the Messianic age. He saw the secular Zionists as part of this divine plan, along with the re-establishment of the Sanhedrin.

Controversies and opposition

Rav Kook's ideas were not shared by everyone. Some secular Zionists did not respect the Torah while still revering it as a brilliant, if not sacred, work. Secular Zionists also generally chose not to observe Halacha such as dietary laws and Shabbat. However, they still respected Rav Kook. His strongest opposition came from the ultra-Orthodox, who saw him as too close to the secular community.

Legacy

After his death in 1935, Rav Kook's yeshiva was taken over by his son, Zvi Yehuda Kook, who promulgated his father's teachings. The Hardal movement—a new label standing for 'Haredi Leumi', meaning 'ultra-Orthodox nationalists'—is today led by rabbis who trained under Zvi Yehuda Kook at Mercaz HaRav.

Contribution to Judaism

Rav Kook was instrumental in seeking a religious basis to what would become the state of Israel. His work as rabbi in Palestine was part of that effort. He established his yeshiva to help in the religious education of Jewish people in Israel. However, he acknowledged the secular leadership as well. In fact, he noted that the atheists may be right in that the God they rejected was often an immature and distorted image of God.

He was involved in the formulation of the Balfour Declaration that would lead to the establishment of a Jewish homeland. Rav Kook is also noted because of his philosophical and mystical writings. He saw the physical land of Palestine to be a place where spiritual life can be best expressed, bringing 'light' to the world, a physical location that could bring purity and full life to the Jewish people.

Impact on Judaism

Schools of Thought in Judaism

Kabbalah

Origins and nature

Kabbalah (literally 'receiving') refers to the body of Jewish mystical texts that were preserved and studied by a small group of elite scholars until modern times. Kabbalah gradually developed as a school of thought, although Kabbalists emphasize that it cannot be studied independently of traditional Jewish learning but only as an extension of it.

Kabbalah is a set of very esoteric teachings that attempt to unlock the secret inner meaning of the Tanakh and the Talmud. 'Esoteric' refers to the fact that these are secret concepts only obtainable by or revealed to a few people.

The Zohar

It discusses four levels of interpretation required in reading a text, ranging from the direct meaning to the hidden or secret meaning. Followers of Kabbalah suggest that it is important to study the Torah in this way, but other Jewish people consider this approach almost heretical.

Historical development

It is not clear when the Kabbalah movement actually began. Many believe it grew in the eleventh or thirteenth century, while some see Kabbalah evident in early documents from the first century CE. Kabbalah tradition says that secret knowledge was passed down from the Patriarchs and prophets, and that it was practised in the tenth century BCE. The reason it became hidden was due to the conquest of invading forces and the eventual diaspora.

During the time the Talmud was developed, the rabbis warned against teaching esoteric concepts; if they taught them, it was to a limited group of students, usually one at a time. The contrast between the God of justice and the God of mercy was an essential concept in Kabbalah during this time, as were the Ten Sefirot.

With the influence of Moses Maimonides, who developed the idea of committing oral traditions to writing, many Kabbalists of the era committed their teachings to writing. It was around this time that the Zohar was written, and the term Kabbalah referred to this work.

Key concepts

The Ten Sefirot represents a process of creation that reveals the ethical nature of God and His creation. Human beings are created with several elements. The nefesh enters every human being at birth. The ru'ach and neshamah can be developed over time. Ru'ach refers to the spirit, the moral virtues, and the ability to tell good from evil. Neshamah is the higher soul that is an awareness of the divine. The Zohar suggests there is an even higher form of the soul that can be accessed by using Kabbalah techniques and knowledge.

Controversies

While Kabbalah talks of monotheism, many see it as promoting a dualism or even a form of polytheism. The Ten Sefirot are often criticised by opponents of Kabbalah as being different expressions of God, thus different gods. Certainly, in the Zohar there seems to be the suggestion of at least two divine beings—the Sitra Achra, who is seen as the 'evil' side of God and almost as a separate being, as opposed to the Ein Sof, 'the infinite God'. The heavenly court, expressed in the early chapter of the Book of Job, is seen as an example of this concept.

Numerical mysticism

One feature of Kabbalah is the fact that every Hebrew letter has a numeric value. Hebrew does not have a separate number system. The suggestion is that the Torah contains secret encoded messages that can be discovered using the numerical alphabet. By converting the letters to numbers, these hidden meanings can be accessed. There are many different methods of doing this, thus the importance of having the secret knowledge.

Contribution to Judaism

Various teachers carried on the teachings of Kabbalah, but it was the Ba'al Shem Tov (1698–1760) and the formation of the Hassidic movement that popularised the concepts of Kabbalah. It is through the ongoing work of the Hassidim, especially with the writing of Rav Kook and the Lubavitch community, that Kabbalah is receiving renewed interest.

Impact on Judaism

Zionism

Origins and early development

Zionism, as a concept, can be traced back to biblical times. The term Zion began as the name of the mountain on which Jerusalem is built. Under King David, it came to refer to the city and, in time, to the Land of Israel.

Zionism is the political movement that supported the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The homeland is sometimes referred to as Eretz Yisra'el. This movement has resulted in the modern state of Israel.

Theodor Herzl's leadership

In 1890, the term was used by the Austrian Jewish publisher Nathan Birnbaum. Over the next few years, through the work of Herzl, it was clearly identified with the struggle of the Jewish people to find a homeland. Herzl wrote the book Der Judenstaat (The state of the Jewish people), and when it was published in 1896, he became the leading spokesperson for Zionism.

As part of his efforts to enlist diplomatic support for his vision, in 1896 Theodor Herzl met with the Sultan of Turkey, who controlled Palestine; when asked, he refused to cede Palestine to the Jewish Zionists. Herzl met with the German Emperor and the Ottoman Emperor and appeared before the British Royal Commission on Alien Immigration. These proved to be unsuccessful ventures, but Herzl was being listened to, especially by the British.

Herzl established the First Zionist Congress in 1897, which later became the World Zionist Organization (WZO), and was president and representative of the Congress and WZO until his death in 1904. Herzl died of heart failure before many of these issues were resolved, at the age of 44. He was buried in Vienna, Austria, but in 1949 his remains were reburied on Mount Herzl in Jerusalem.

Contribution to Judaism

While Zionism was developing as a concept in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Jewish settlement had been occurring in Palestine for some time. While they were largely scattered during the first century CE, there had always been Jewish people living in Palestine. Small groups had migrated to Palestine in the intervening years, with significant growth in 1882. Most were from Russia, where anti-Semitism was growing.

Herzl's contribution was in bringing the diverse Zionist groups together to make a concerted effort to both settle the land and to achieve diplomatic recognition. He facilitated the financial basis for the settlement effort, whereby wealthy Jewish people supported those with the willingness to work the land but not the ability to purchase any. He brought Zionists together and enabled them to clarify and refine their vision and its implementation.

Path to statehood

After World War II and the Holocaust, support for Zionism increased. Attempts to restrict immigration to Palestine were imposed and largely failed. In 1947, Palestine was partitioned into a Jewish state, an Arab state, and a United Nations-controlled territory.

The Arab states opposed this concept, and when the Jewish Agency declared the creation of the state of Israel on 14 May 1948, the Arab countries invaded Israel. Israel emerged triumphant from the battle, enlarging its territory and creating about 700,000 Palestinian refugees. In 1967, the Arab states attacked again with a similar result.

Impact on Judaism

There are variations in the expression of Zionism, mainly related to the role of Judaism in the state of Israel. Labor Zionism is largely a secular movement that began in Russia. This was the Zionism of the first Israeli president, David Ben-Gurion. Yiddish—the religious language of the diaspora—was rejected and the use of Hebrew was encouraged.

Those who oppose Zionism include a tiny proportion of so-called ultra-Orthodox. Religious Zionism was taught by Rav Kook, and those who follow this path wish to develop dialogue with the Israeli leadership.

Other groups include the American Jewish lobby, which pours great amounts of money into Israel and lobbies the US government to protect Israel from attack or invasion. Many American fundamentalist Christians, who are dispensationalists awaiting the physical return of Jesus to Jerusalem, also support Israel, seeing it as a fulfilment of biblical prophecy.

Jewish feminism

Historical background

Jewish feminism reflects the diversity of interpretations in Judaism, both religious and secular. The aim of Jewish feminists is to improve women's religious, legal, and social standing within Judaism. All of the major groups in Judaism have been affected by this movement but reflect it in different ways.

The Tanakh is an ancient piece of literature and, as may be expected, reflects a patriarchal society. Few women are identified in the Tanakh, yet those who are mentioned are very significant. They include Moses' sister Miriam, and Deborah, Ruth, and Esther. It is worth noting that there are generally more references to women in the Tanakh than in the other writings of this era. Women in the Tanakh could be prophets and Nazarites and could perform a role in the spiritual life of Israel.

Traditional roles

As Judaism emerged as a formalised religious tradition, women were largely kept to domestic roles (as was common in society as a whole). Women could learn the Torah and participate in women's prayer groups. Generally, the principle was applied that women were exempt from the mitzvot (commandments) that had to be performed at a specific time. They were also discouraged from studying the Torah beyond what was necessary to run a household, as raising Jewish children and running a Jewish home was considered their primary religious duty.

Modern feminist movement

The social changes of the late 1960s and early 1970s affected the civil rights movement and feminism in general. Feminist movements gained prominence and adherents in several organised religions. Some Jewish women embraced these changes as well.

Reform and Conservative movements

Although the Reform Movement included ideas of gender equality from its inception, the Conservative Movement (an offshoot of Reform that valued traditional practices) failed to offer women the same religious opportunities. In 1972, there were 10 Conservative Jewish feminists who established a group named Ezrat Nashim to discuss issues related to Jewish women. They produced a document called the 'Call for change', which raised issues such as:

• Jewish women were not allowed to be witnesses under Jewish law
• The need for women to perform mitzvot
• Equal rights in marriage (including the right to initiate divorce)
• Being counted as part of a minyan
• Assuming leadership positions in the synagogue
• Participating in religious observances

It was 11 years later (1983) that women were finally accepted into the rabbinic school at the (Conservative) Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Over the past three decades, great strides have been made towards equality for women in the Conservative Movement.

Orthodox feminism

Modern Orthodoxy has its feminist movement, led by Blu Greenberg, founder of the Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance (JOFA). Dozens of institutions for Orthodox Women's learning at the highest level have been established. There are also movements such as Shira Hadasha, which look to extend the boundaries of Orthodox women's participation in ritual, particularly in the synagogue service. Women's tefillah (prayer) groups, where Orthodox women read from the Torah, are common in most large Jewish communities.

Contribution to Judaism

Modern Orthodox feminism seeks to change women's status under Jewish law and in positions of leadership and general life. Where there is a conflict between religious law and feminism, the law is seen to hold sway. Orthodox feminists are concerned with issues such as divorce, education, and modesty. In some Orthodox synagogues, women are allowed to take on a variety of non-liturgical positions, including that of president of the synagogue.

Progressive Judaism has allowed women a much greater role in Jewish life. They are allowed to be rabbis, read the Torah, and participate freely in synagogue services where men and women sit together, and in Jewish life. All of the practices accepted in Conservative Judaism are acceptable in Progressive Judaism.

Impact on Judaism

The first woman to be ordained as a rabbi was Regina Jonas, a German Jewish woman ordained in 1935. She was killed in Auschwitz in 1944. Several Australian women have worked as rabbis in Progressive synagogues in Australia, including Rabbi Aviva Kipen (the first Australian woman to be ordained as a rabbi), Jacqueline Ninio, and Orna Triguboff.

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