Fortress Landscapes (AQA A-Level Geography): Revision Notes
Fortress landscapes
What are fortress landscapes?
Fortress landscapes describe urban areas that have been specifically designed with security, protection, surveillance and exclusion as their primary focus. In the UK, these security-oriented approaches have been adopted in various cities to tackle crime in urban hotspots, particularly in city centres and inner-city housing estates.
The fundamental aim of fortress landscapes is to create environments that deter criminal activity and make residents and visitors feel safer. However, these strategies have also been criticised for creating divisions within communities and excluding certain groups from public spaces.
While fortress landscapes aim to improve safety, they raise important questions about the balance between security and social inclusion. The creation of heavily monitored and controlled spaces can fundamentally change the character of urban environments and how people interact with public spaces.
Traditional security strategies
UK cities have implemented several well-established security measures to reduce crime in fortress landscapes:
CCTV surveillance systems have been installed extensively throughout urban areas. These closed-circuit television cameras monitor both public spaces (such as streets and shopping areas) and private spaces (including residential estates and car parks). The presence of cameras aims to deter potential offenders and provide evidence when crimes occur.
Physical barriers such as railings and fencing are used to restrict access to certain areas and mark clear boundaries between public and private space. These barriers help control movement through urban areas and protect specific locations.
Mosquito alarms represent a more controversial security technology. These devices produce a high-frequency sound that can only be detected by younger people. The uncomfortable noise discourages teenagers and young adults from loitering around particular buildings or gathering in certain areas. Critics argue this unfairly targets all young people rather than addressing specific antisocial behaviour.
Enhanced street lighting improves visibility in public spaces during evening and night-time hours. Better illumination makes it harder for criminals to operate unseen and helps people feel safer when using these spaces after dark.
Speed bumps and traffic calming measures have been installed to prevent joyriding and discourage reckless driving through residential areas. These physical features force vehicles to slow down, reducing the appeal of these locations for vehicle-related crime and improving safety for residents.
These traditional security strategies often work most effectively when used in combination rather than in isolation. For example, CCTV cameras are more effective in well-lit areas, and physical barriers work better when supported by surveillance systems.
Modern approaches: designing out crime
More recent strategies in fortress landscapes have focused on the concept of 'designing out crime' through thoughtful urban architecture and planning. Rather than simply adding security measures to existing areas, this approach considers how the physical design of the built environment can naturally discourage criminal activity.
Case Study: Manchester Housing Estates
The redesign of housing in the Greenheys and Wythenshawe estates in Manchester demonstrates the "designing out crime" approach effectively:
Design features included:
- Additional windows to enable better natural surveillance, allowing residents to observe activity in surrounding areas
- Front gardens bordered by fences or hedges to establish clear boundaries between private residential space and public areas
- Bins placed in gated compounds rather than left in open alleyways where they could be used to climb onto roofs or cause obstruction
- Clear demarcation between public and private spaces to reduce confusion and establish ownership of different areas
Features deliberately avoided:
- Recessed doorways that could provide hiding spots for people with criminal intent
- Exposed window sills and rainwater downpipes that could be used to climb to upper floors or rooftops
- Dark alleys and dead ends that are associated with mugging and drug dealing activities
- These locations typically have poor visibility and provide easy escape routes for offenders
This architectural approach aims to create environments where natural surveillance occurs, boundaries are respected, and opportunities for crime are minimized through thoughtful design rather than obvious security measures.
Exclusionary tactics
Evidence from some UK cities shows the adoption of exclusionary tactics originally developed in North America. These methods deliberately segregate or exclude certain groups perceived as threatening or undesirable from particular urban spaces.
Anti-homeless measures have been particularly controversial:
- Anti-homeless spikes fitted into the ground in shop doorways and outside upmarket apartments to prevent rough sleeping
- Sloped bus shelter seats and specially designed benches that deter rough sleepers by making it physically uncomfortable or impossible to lie down
- Skateboard deterrents installed in public spaces to prevent skateboarding activity
The high-pitched mosquito alarms mentioned earlier also function as an exclusionary device by making spaces uncomfortable for young people, potentially driving them away from legitimate use of public areas.
Guards and electronic access control systems are becoming more common features in certain urban landscapes. The use of security guards or electronic systems to control access to housing complexes represents an increasing trend, though this remains less widespread in British cities compared to places like the USA and South Africa. However, the integration of electronic access control into gated communities and private residential developments is growing.
Critics have strongly challenged these exclusionary tactics, arguing they unfairly discriminate against vulnerable groups and restrict the use of public space rather than addressing underlying social issues. These measures raise fundamental questions about who has the right to occupy and use urban public spaces, and whether creating exclusionary environments ultimately serves the broader public interest.
Case study: Fortress LA
Surveillance and exclusion measures reach their most extreme form in American cities, with Los Angeles having developed a reputation as "a city built on fear". Urban geographer Mike Davis has documented how concern about gangs, ethnic minorities and homelessness has fundamentally reshaped the Los Angeles urban landscape.
Case Study: Fortress Los Angeles
Los Angeles demonstrates the most extreme application of fortress landscape principles:
Key features include:
Gated communities where entire residential neighbourhoods are enclosed by walls or fences with controlled entry points. Only residents and approved visitors can access these areas, creating physically separated enclaves within the city.
Armed-response security units patrol residential areas, providing private security services that go beyond what public police forces offer. This represents a privatisation of security that is uncommon in UK cities.
Shopping malls surrounded by staked metal fencing and LAPD surveillance towers demonstrate how retail spaces are fortified and monitored. The visible security infrastructure sends a clear message about protection and control.
Los Angeles demonstrates how fortress landscape strategies can fundamentally alter the character of a city, creating a landscape defined by fear, exclusion and surveillance rather than openness and community interaction.
Edge cities
Edge cities are self-contained settlements that have emerged beyond the original city boundary and developed as cities in their own right. They represent a distinct form of urban development associated with suburban expansion.
Edge cities are particularly associated with the urban landscape of North America and have been identified by some commentators as a feature of postmodern urban living. They result largely from urban sprawl, occurring on a much larger scale in the USA due to higher rates of car ownership, greater willingness to travel long distances for work, widespread shopping and entertainment decentralisation, and limited planning restrictions in suburban areas.
Los Angeles as the classic example
Los Angeles provides the archetypal example of edge city development. In 2015, the city of Los Angeles measured approximately 30 kilometres wide and had a population of just under 4 million people. However, this core city is surrounded by a vast metropolitan area with nearly 18 million residents, extending more than 100 kilometres at its widest point. Within this extensive metropolitan area, more than 20 distinct edge cities have developed, including Pasadena and Century City.
Characteristics of edge cities:
Edge cities typically develop close to major roads or airports, taking advantage of good transport connections. They tend to be located near shops, offices and other businesses that have decentralised from the original city core. While edge cities may lack the clear structure and defined centre of traditional cities, they possess a wide range of amenities including schools, shopping malls and entertainment facilities. This means residents rarely need to travel back to the original core city for daily activities.
Social segregation concerns:
Edge cities have been linked to extreme social segregation within metropolitan areas. As wealthy residents relocate to new suburban settlements, they leave behind the poor and disadvantaged sections of society in the original city boundary. This process creates stark economic and social divisions across the metropolitan area, with affluent edge cities contrasting sharply with struggling inner-city neighbourhoods.
The postmodern western city
Postmodernism describes the changes that took place in Western society and culture in the late twentieth century. It primarily concerned art and architecture and marked a departure from the conformity, uniformity and brutalist nature of modernism. Postmodernism is characterised by the mixing of different artistic styles and architecture.
Understanding the concept
The concept of the postmodern western city applies postmodernist ideas to urban development and city structure. This theoretical framework has been used to analyse and explain changes occurring in Western (mainly American) cities during recent decades.
Key features of the postmodern western city include:
Fragmented urban form: Rather than having a single dominant centre, postmodern cities comprise multiple independent settlements such as edge cities. These settlements have their own distinct economies, societies and cultures, creating a patchwork metropolitan landscape.
Emphasis on producer services and knowledge-based industries: Postmodern cities have shifted away from traditional industrial mass production towards service industries, particularly those focused on creating and managing information and knowledge.
Eclectic and varied architecture: The cityscape displays a mix of architectural styles rather than uniform development. This can be seen clearly in cities like London where historic buildings stand alongside modern glass structures and diverse architectural expressions.
Spectacular flagship developments: Postmodern cities feature prestigious, attention-grabbing architectural projects designed to attract visitors and investment. The Guggenheim museum in Bilbao, Spain exemplifies this trend, where a single spectacular building has transformed a city's international profile.
Increased ethnic diversity alongside heightened economic, social and cultural inequalities: While postmodern cities may become more ethnically diverse, they simultaneously experience greater polarisation between affluent and disadvantaged communities.
Link to fortress landscapes
Both fortress landscapes and edge cities have been identified as characteristic features of the postmodern western city. The fragmentation, segregation and privatisation evident in these urban forms align with postmodernist ideas about the breakdown of unified social structures and the diversification of urban experiences.
Limitations of the concept:
It is important to recognise that the notion of the postmodern western city has been based predominantly on the experiences of a small number of mainly American cities. Los Angeles is often referred to as the archetypal postmodern city, but the experiences and development patterns of Los Angeles are clearly not representative of cities elsewhere in the world. Therefore, whilst elements of postmodernism can be observed in cities globally, applying this framework too broadly may oversimplify the diverse realities of urban development in different cultural and geographical contexts.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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Fortress landscapes are security-focused urban designs that use surveillance, physical barriers and architectural strategies to reduce crime and control access to spaces.
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Two main approaches exist: traditional security measures (CCTV, railings, mosquito alarms) and modern "designing out crime" through thoughtful architectural design that naturally discourages criminal activity.
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Exclusionary tactics are controversial because they target vulnerable groups like the homeless and young people, raising questions about who has the right to use public urban spaces.
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Edge cities represent suburban sprawl taken to an extreme - they are self-contained settlements beyond the original city boundary that function independently, particularly common in North American metropolitan areas like Los Angeles.
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The postmodern western city concept links these features together - fortress landscapes and edge cities are both seen as characteristics of fragmented, diverse, unequal urban forms that emerged in late twentieth century Western cities.