Conclusion (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Conclusion

Understanding Soviet Russia 1917-1953

The period from 1917 to 1953 in Russia witnessed profound upheavals that transformed the state and society. To make sense of this history requires grappling with complex and sometimes contradictory ideologies. Terms such as Marxism, communism, dictatorship, Leninism, Stalinism, and Marxist-Leninism all played a role in shaping events. During these decades, individual leaders—particularly Lenin and Stalin—exerted dramatic influence on how the Russian and Soviet State evolved. At the same time, governmental change produced profound economic and social consequences for ordinary people.

Defining the ideologies

Understanding the ideological landscape is essential for analysing Soviet Russia. These terms are often used interchangeably, but they have distinct meanings:

Marxism: Marx himself used the term 'communism' to describe his theories. Lenin, however, preferred to refer to 'Marxism' as a distinct economic, social and political philosophy. For Lenin, 'socialism' represented the ultimate goal. Marxist theory envisaged a revolutionary transformation of society in which the working class would overthrow capitalism and establish collective ownership.

Leninism: Lenin claimed to follow Marxist philosophy and believed that the 1917 revolution he helped to propel would rapidly advance to its 'socialist phase'. He expected revolutions elsewhere in Europe to assist this process. When international revolution did not materialise, Lenin adopted a pragmatic approach. He embraced policies such as the New Economic Policy (NEP) and the ban on factions within the party, even though these contradicted his socialist goals. Leninism thus became associated with tactical flexibility and the idea that a disciplined vanguard party could lead the revolution.

Stalinism: Stalin's critics coined this term to describe his undemocratic and even dictatorial rule. Stalinist policies and practices—such as 'socialism in one country' and the purges—directly contradicted Marxist philosophy. Stalin placed the national interests of the USSR above the struggle for world revolution. Where Marx and Lenin had emphasised international working-class solidarity, Stalin focused on building Soviet power within existing borders.

Marxist-Leninism: Stalin invented this term after Lenin's death to describe the official ideology of the USSR. Increasingly, Marxist-Leninism referred less to genuine Marxist theory and more to whatever political and economic policies Stalin chose to adopt. The term thus served to legitimise Stalin's rule by connecting it to Lenin's legacy, even when Stalin's actions departed from original Marxist principles.

The revolution of 1917

In 1917, following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, a group of revolutionaries seized control of the Russian State. None of these revolutionaries—not even Lenin or Trotsky—actually caused the revolution. The revolution began without them. However, the Bolshevik Party hijacked the revolutionary process and used the rhetoric of 'Marxist-Leninism' to establish a Soviet State.

The Bolsheviks' success rested on ruthless power politics rather than ideological purity. Although the new state was founded on the theoretical principles of revolutionary Marxism, these principles were moulded and changed by the pressure of events and by the ideas and actions of individuals. Stalin, after 1924, proved particularly adept at reshaping ideology to suit his purposes. Nonetheless, revolutionary idealism remained a potent force throughout this period. The USSR was born from revolution, and the leadership claimed to be working toward the ultimate goal of 'socialism'—a society in which everyone lived and worked in harmony with the rest of the community. Both Lenin and Stalin were aware that this goal lay in the future, but both claimed to be working in its interests.

The consolidation of dictatorship

While Lenin laid the foundations of the Soviet State, Stalin transformed it into something altogether more repressive. By 1953, Stalin had established his own unquestioned authority within the USSR. Communist rule came to be equated with Marxist-Leninism, but in practice this meant Stalinism.

Stalinism had diverse aspects. It featured a bureaucratic Party structure that stifled debate and concentrated power at the top. The government was highly centralised, with decisions flowing from Moscow to the republics and regions. Stalin's regime relied heavily on propaganda to shape public opinion and create mass support. A cult of personality surrounded Stalin himself, presenting him as the wise father of the nation. A ubiquitous secret police maintained a state of terror, monitoring citizens and crushing dissent. All these elements were dominated by Stalin's tight control over the power structures within his inner circle.

Stalinism could be reassuringly fixed and certain for those who conformed, but it was deeply frightening. For those in Stalin's ruling elite, life was just as dangerous as it was for ordinary people. The system's unpredictability and violence created an atmosphere of fear that permeated Soviet society.

Revolution, dictatorship and the Soviet people

Between 1917 and 1953, the peoples of the Soviet Union experienced epic upheavals and social transformation. The human cost was staggering:

• Millions died in famines during the Civil War
• Forced collectivisation in the 1930s caused mass starvation
• Another famine struck in 1946-1947 after the Second World War
• State terror claimed countless victims through purges and executions
• The Great Patriotic War resulted in 20 million Soviet deaths
• The war brought dislocation through German occupation, mass mobilisation of industry and forced deportations
• In 1953, millions were still trapped in the prison labour camps of the Gulag

The propaganda and repression of a dictatorial system permeated society and made 'normal life' difficult or even impossible for many Soviet citizens.

However, people did not only endure hardships and fear. Millions were genuinely inspired by the ideals of the revolution and believed in a brave new world of progress. Millions believed in Lenin and Stalin. During and after the war, they believed in victory and in a better future. They believed in equality and in the social achievements of Soviet communism—in education, culture, science and technology. Many believed that the upheavals and suffering they endured were stepping-stones to a progressive society that would eventually overcome the capitalist West.

Stalin's death and the Soviet legacy

When Stalin died in 1953, the Soviet people looked back at the 'Soviet achievement' with pride as well as regrets. They looked forward with hope but also with considerable uncertainty about the future. Many, both in the Party and amongst ordinary people, knew there would have to be change. They recognised that High Stalinism could not continue as it was.

In Russia today, many people still look back at Stalin and the USSR with a mixture of pride and longing. This reflects the complexity of Stalin's legacy—a period of immense suffering combined with genuine achievements and deeply held beliefs in the revolutionary project.