Key Content (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Key content

Course structure and scope

Students examine the relationship between political decisions, economic developments and political survival across different governments and ideologies.

Part one: Building a new Britain, 1951-1979

The affluent society, 1951-1964

Conservative dominance refers to the period of unbroken Conservative government from 1951 to 1964, under three successive leaders: Winston Churchill, Anthony Eden and Harold Macmillan. Each brought distinct leadership styles and faced different challenges in maintaining their party's electoral appeal.

The domestic political landscape centred on internal Labour divisions, which weakened the opposition and allowed the Conservatives extended control. The party presented itself as competent managers of Britain's post-war recovery, though this image would face serious tests.

Social developments transformed British life. Rising living standards meant more families could afford consumer goods, holidays and household appliances. Affluence describes this increase in material prosperity and purchasing power among working and middle-class families. However, this prosperity was uneven and masked continuing poverty in some regions and communities.

Consumerism emerged as a defining feature of the period, with advertising and new retail methods encouraging spending on goods beyond basic necessities. This shift affected social attitudes, family life and individual aspirations. Television ownership spread rapidly, changing leisure patterns and creating shared cultural experiences.

Class structures remained highly stratified. The Establishment refers to the interconnected elite of politicians, senior civil servants, military officers, church leaders and members of old families who dominated public life and decision-making. Their continued influence prompted debates about meritocracy and social mobility.

Women's position in society underwent gradual change. While many women worked, expectations still centred on marriage and domesticity. The contraceptive pill, introduced in 1961, would eventually transform reproductive choices and women's life trajectories, though its full impact emerged later.

Immigration from Commonwealth countries, particularly the Caribbean and South Asia, increased during this period. Attitudes varied from welcoming to hostile, with racial violence erupting in some areas. The government faced pressure to control immigration while maintaining Commonwealth ties.

Foreign policy centred on managing Britain's declining imperial role while maintaining international influence. The government sought entry to the European Economic Community (EEC), seeing economic advantages in joining the trading bloc, but President de Gaulle vetoed British membership in 1963. Relations with the United States remained close, though Suez in 1956 exposed the limits of British power without American support.

The Korean War (1950-1953) demonstrated Britain's commitment to the Western alliance and anti-communist containment. The Suez Crisis of 1956 proved a humiliating failure when Britain and France attempted to retake the Suez Canal without American backing, forcing a withdrawal and Eden's resignation.

Decolonisation accelerated as Britain granted independence to numerous colonies. This process, sometimes smooth and sometimes violent, fundamentally altered Britain's global position and created the modern Commonwealth.

The sixties, 1964-1970

Harold Wilson led the Labour Party to victory in 1964, ending thirteen years of Conservative rule. Wilson's ideology combined pragmatic modernisation with social democratic values. He emphasised scientific and technological progress, promising to harness the 'white heat' of technology to transform Britain's economy and society. His leadership style mixed political skill with populist appeal, though economic difficulties would undermine his ambitions.

Relations with the unions, traditionally Labour's allies, became strained over economic management. Domestic policies included raising the school leaving age and expanding comprehensive education, attempting to create a more meritocratic system. However, economic constraints limited the government's room for manoeuvre.

Labour divisions over various issues, including Europe, weakened the government's effectiveness. Wilson struggled to maintain party unity while implementing unpopular economic measures.

Northern Ireland descended into violence as civil rights protests by Catholics met resistance from unionists and heavy-handed security responses. The 'troubles' began with increasing sectarian violence, bombings and riots. British troops deployed in 1969, initially welcomed by Catholics as protection but soon seen as occupiers. This conflict would dominate British politics for decades.

The 1970 election brought unexpected Conservative victory under Edward Heath, ending Wilson's government.

Educational reform expanded access to higher education. The comprehensive school system grew, replacing selective grammar schools in many areas, though debates continued over whether this improved or damaged educational standards.

Social and cultural change accelerated. The mass media expanded with multiple television channels and growing newspaper readership. Leisure activities diversified as disposable income increased. Scientific developments, including medical advances and technological innovations, affected daily life.

Censorship reduced as authorities took more permissive approaches to literature, theatre and film. Progress towards female equality continued, though women still faced discrimination in employment and legal rights. Changes in moral attitudes regarding sexuality, marriage and authority challenged traditional norms.

The 'permissive society' emerged, characterised by greater personal freedom, relaxed sexual mores and rejection of traditional constraints. Youth culture and anti-establishment attitudes flourished. Vietnam War protests mobilised opposition to American policy and, by extension, British support for the United States.

Immigration and race relations worsened in some areas. The government passed race relations legislation to combat discrimination while also restricting immigration from Commonwealth countries.

Relations with the United States remained close despite disagreements over Vietnam. Britain refused to send troops to Vietnam, straining relations but avoiding deeper involvement in the war. Response to world affairs included managing the final stages of decolonisation.

Relations with Europe remained contentious. Wilson's government applied again for EEC membership but faced another French veto. The debate over Europe divided both main parties.

Decolonisation continued with 'withdrawal East of Suez', as Britain reduced its military presence beyond Europe. This policy recognised economic limits and changed strategic priorities. Rhodesia presented a particular challenge when the white minority government declared independence illegally in 1965, refusing black majority rule.

The end of post-war consensus, 1970-1979

Edward Heath became Conservative leader and Prime Minister in 1970. His government initially pursued free market policies but reversed course when faced with economic difficulties. This U-turn damaged his credibility and revealed the constraints on government action.

The 'troubles' in Northern Ireland intensified. Internment without trial, introduced in 1971, radicalised Catholic opinion without significantly reducing violence. Bloody Sunday in January 1972, when British paratroopers shot dead thirteen unarmed civilians in Derry, proved a propaganda disaster. The Sunningdale Agreement of 1973 attempted power-sharing between unionists and nationalists but collapsed after just months due to unionist opposition and a loyalist strike.

Labour returned to power in 1974 under Wilson, followed by James Callaghan in 1976 when Wilson resigned. Both governments faced severe economic and industrial problems. The economy suffered from high inflation, rising unemployment and low growth - a combination termed 'stagflation'. Traditional Keynesian policies seemed unable to address simultaneous inflation and unemployment.

Policies attempted to manage decline rather than reverse it. Northern Ireland policy proved intractable, with violence continuing despite various initiatives. Society in the 1970s saw continued progress in some areas but growing pessimism about Britain's direction.

Feminism gained strength as a political movement. The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 made discrimination based on sex illegal in employment, education and other areas. Women's rights expanded legally even as practical equality remained distant.

Race and immigration continued generating tension. The National Front gained support with racist and anti-immigrant messages, though never achieving electoral breakthrough. Immigration policies became more restrictive.

Youth culture and social attitudes reflected economic difficulties. Punk rock emerged in the mid-1970s, expressing working-class anger and rejection of established culture.

Environmentalism appeared as a new political concern, though not yet mainstream.

The 'special relationship' with the United States continued but faced strains. Attitudes towards the USSR and China reflected Cold War divisions, though some détente occurred. Britain maintained nuclear weapons but relied increasingly on American technology and cooperation.

Part two: Modern Britain, 1979-2007

The impact of Thatcherism, 1979-1987

Margaret Thatcher led the Conservatives to victory in 1979, beginning an eleven-year premiership that transformed British politics and society. As the first woman Prime Minister, her gender was less significant than her ideological conviction and leadership style.

Thatcher as leader demonstrated determination, confrontational style and clear ideological vision. She rejected the post-war consensus, embracing free market economics, reduced state intervention and individualism. Her character combined combativeness with attention to presentation. She dominated her Cabinet, dismissing dissenters and promoting supporters.

The Social Democratic Party (SDP) split from Labour in 1981, formed by moderates who rejected Labour's leftward shift. Electoral success in 1979 and 1983 gave Thatcher strong mandates. The 1983 landslide victory, with a majority of 144 seats, followed the Falklands War and faced a divided opposition.

Internal Labour divisions between moderates and the hard left, combined with an unpopular manifesto in 1983, gifted Thatcher victories. Northern Ireland remained violent throughout. The formation of the SDP split the anti-Conservative vote, helping the Conservatives win despite never achieving majority popular support.

Issues of inflation initially worsened before improving. Unemployment soared to over three million by 1982-1983, the highest since the 1930s. Deindustrialisation eliminated traditional manufacturing jobs, devastating industrial communities. However, economic growth returned, inflation fell, and London's financial sector boomed.

Economic realignment describes the shift from manufacturing to services, from unionised to non-unionised work, from state to private sector. This transformation altered class structures and political allegiances.

Thatcherism's impact on society proved profound and divisive. Council house sales under the 'right to buy' policy allowed tenants to purchase their homes at substantial discounts. Over one million families bought their homes, creating a new property-owning class. Critics argued this depleted social housing stock without replacement, creating future homelessness.

The miners' strike left lasting bitterness in former mining communities. Other industrial disputes, including newspaper workers and dock workers, ended in union defeats. Social divisions widened between prosperous south and struggling north, between homeowners and renters, between employed and unemployed.

The poll tax, introduced from 1989 (after this period), would prove Thatcher's downfall.

Extra-parliamentary opposition emerged through protests, riots and civil disobedience. Inner city riots in 1981 in Brixton, Toxteth and elsewhere reflected unemployment, poverty and police tensions, particularly with black communities.

The 'special relationship' with the United States strengthened under President Reagan. Thatcher and Reagan shared ideological views and personal rapport. She supported American policies, including allowing US aircraft to use British bases for bombing Libya in 1986.

Moves to end the Cold War began as Soviet leader Gorbachev introduced reforms. Thatcher famously declared Gorbachev "a man we can do business with", recognising the opportunity for improved East-West relations. Thatcher as an international figure commanded respect abroad, projecting British influence beyond the country's material power.

Towards a new consensus, 1987-1997

The fall of Thatcher came in November 1990, when Cabinet opposition and backbench revolt forced her resignation. Her introduction of the poll tax sparked massive protests and riots. More fundamentally, her increasingly strident opposition to European integration and dictatorial style alienated colleagues.

John Major became Conservative leader and Prime Minister, winning the 1992 election against expectations. Major as leader contrasted with Thatcher - more consensual, less ideological, attempting to heal divisions. However, he inherited intractable problems, particularly over Europe, and his government became mired in scandals and internal warfare.

Political sleaze damaged Major's government. Multiple scandals involving ministers and MPs created impressions of a corrupt, tired government. The 'cash for questions' affair, where MPs allegedly took payment for asking parliamentary questions, proved particularly damaging. Major's attempt to establish moral authority through a 'back to basics' campaign backfired when revelations of ministers' affairs emerged.

Satirical programmes like 'Spitting Image' savagely mocked politicians. Major was portrayed as grey and ineffectual, wearing his underpants outside his trousers - memorably absurd imagery.

Political policies included privatisation continuing with British Rail and other remaining state industries. Approval of Northern Ireland peace process represented Major's greatest achievement.

Conservative divisions over Europe consumed Major's government. Eurosceptic MPs, called 'bastards' by Major in an unguarded moment, opposed the Maastricht Treaty and closer European integration. Major negotiated opt-outs from the single currency and social chapter but couldn't satisfy Eurosceptics. Parliamentary rebellions and threats destroyed government authority.

Blair as leader brought youth, charisma and communication skills. His 'third way' rhetoric positioned Labour between old left and Thatcherite right. He portrayed himself as modernising and pragmatic.

Kinnock and Smith deserve credit for laying foundations for Blair's victory. Kinnock's internal battles made the party electable, while Smith's integrity restored respect. Blair built on their work.

Social issues evolved as society changed. Social liberalism expanded, with greater tolerance of diverse lifestyles, though significant conservatism remained. Anti-establishment culture declined as the establishment itself became less monolithic and formal.

The position of women improved with more women in professional careers, though glass ceilings and wage gaps persisted. Race relations remained problematic, with institutional racism identified in the police following the Stephen Lawrence inquiry (after this period).

Foreign affairs witnessed the Cold War's end. The Berlin Wall's fall in 1989 and the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991 transformed international relations. Relations with Europe remained contentious. The Single European Act came into force in 1987, creating a true single market. The Maastricht Treaty of 1992 established the European Union, introducing common citizenship and planning monetary union. Major's opt-outs from monetary union and social provisions pleased Eurosceptics but failed to resolve Conservative divisions.

Interventions in the Balkans responded to Yugoslavia's violent disintegration. British forces participated in UN peacekeeping in Bosnia, though the mission's limited rules of engagement hampered effectiveness. These experiences influenced later attitudes to military intervention.

Contribution and attitude to Cold War's end showed Britain played a supporting role to American and Soviet leaders. Thatcher's relationship with Gorbachev helped legitimise his reforms in Western eyes, while Major supported German reunification despite private reservations.

The era of new Labour, 1997-2007

Labour governments under Blair governed from 1997 to 2007, winning three consecutive elections - unprecedented for Labour. Blair as leader, character and ideology combined presentation skills with genuine conviction. His 'third way' philosophy sought to transcend traditional left-right divisions, accepting markets while addressing social justice. Critics argued this meant accepting Thatcherism's fundamentals while moderating its edges.

Domestic policies included massive investment in public services, particularly health and education, funded by economic growth. However, improvements proved slower than promised, and targets created perverse incentives. Private finance initiatives brought private capital into public projects, though at long-term cost.

Gordon Brown, Chancellor from 1997 to 2007, dominated economic policy. His focus on stability, independent Bank of England (given power to set interest rates in 1997) and 'prudent' management delivered low inflation and steady growth. Tax credits supported low-income families. However, Brown's conflicts with Blair created government tensions.

The Conservative Party struggled after 1997. William Hague (1997-2001), Iain Duncan Smith (2001-2003) and Michael Howard (2003-2005) failed to reconnect with voters. Reasons for divisions included disputes over European policy, with Euroscepticism dominating. Reasons for electoral failures in 2001 and 2005 included Labour's competent economic management, Blair's continued popularity, effective Conservative attacks on the party as extreme, and the Conservatives' failure to develop appealing alternative policies.

Social issues reflected an increasingly diverse society. Workers' positions improved through minimum wage (1999), working time regulations and enhanced employment rights. The position of women continued advancing, though inequalities persisted. Youth benefited from education spending and employment programmes, though binge drinking and antisocial behaviour generated concern.

The extent to which Britain had become a multicultural society increased significantly. Immigration from EU accession countries (from 2004) and continued non-EU immigration diversified population further. Debates over integration, identity and community cohesion intensified. London especially became highly multicultural, with white British becoming a minority in many areas.

Foreign affairs priorities shifted after 2001. Attitudes to Europe remained ambivalent. Blair wanted closer integration but faced public and media hostility. Plans for a European constitution were abandoned after French and Dutch referendums rejected it. The euro decision postponed indefinitely, with Brown's economic tests providing convenient excuse.

The 'special relationship' with the United States intensified under Bush and Blair. Blair strongly supported America after 9/11 terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001.

The 'war on terror' described Western response to Islamist terrorism. Britain faced terrorist attacks, notably the 7 July 2005 London bombings by British-born terrorists, killing 52 people. Attempts to attack London again on 21 July 2005 failed. These attacks traumatised the nation and raised questions about radicalisation, integration and security.

Britain's position in the world by 2007 remained uncertain. The country punched above its weight diplomatically through UN Security Council membership, nuclear weapons and the special relationship. London's financial sector maintained global importance. However, military overstretch in Iraq and Afghanistan exposed limits. The European relationship remained unresolved. Economic dependence on finance created vulnerabilities demonstrated when the 2007-2008 financial crisis began (though its full impact came after this period).