Key Terms (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Key Terms

A

30-year rule refers to the practice whereby government documents without security restrictions become publicly available three decades after their creation. This rule has shaped historical research on modern Britain by determining when sensitive material can be examined.

Abstaining describes the choice to neither support nor oppose a motion during a parliamentary vote in the House of Commons. This tactic allows MPs to avoid taking a clear position on contentious issues.

Al-Qaeda was a loose network of militant cells with no single chain of command. This terrorist organisation became particularly relevant to British politics following the 11 September 2001 attacks and subsequent involvement in the War on Terror.

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) emerged as a public health crisis in the 1980s. Caused by HIV, this condition significantly impacted British social policy and attitudes during the Thatcher years.

Appeasement describes the strategy of making concessions to avoid conflict. In the 1930s, British governments attempted to prevent war with Nazi Germany through this policy, though it ultimately proved unsuccessful.

Apprentice Boys is a loyalist organisation in Northern Ireland that holds annual marches commemorating the closing of Derry's gates against Catholic forces in 1688. These marches became flashpoints during the Troubles, with the 1969 march sparking serious violence.

B

Baby boom describes the sharp increase in birth rates between 1946 and 1964 following the Second World War. Those born during this period, known as 'baby boomers', had profound effects on British society, creating pressure on schools, housing, and later pension systems.

Balance of payments encompasses all economic transactions between Britain and other countries, including both visible trade (goods) and invisible trade (services such as banking, insurance, and shipping). Britain's balance of payments difficulties became a recurring problem throughout the post-war period.

Balance of trade measures the difference between the value of goods a country sells abroad and those it purchases from overseas. Britain experienced persistent trade deficits during much of the period 1951-2007.

Butlins was a chain of holiday camps established by Billy Butlin in 1936. These camps represented an important aspect of British leisure culture, providing affordable holidays for working-class families in the decades after the Second World War.

C

Censorship involves state attempts to control what citizens can read, view, hear, or do through regulations and restrictions. The extent of censorship in Britain decreased during the period 1951-2007, though debates about appropriate limits continued.

Chancellor of the Exchequer is the government minister responsible for managing economic and financial policy. This position often holds more power than any other cabinet role except Prime Minister, and chancellors like Rab Butler, Roy Jenkins, Denis Healey, and Gordon Brown shaped Britain's economic direction.

The City refers to the Square Mile area of London that serves as Britain's financial district. The City remained a powerful economic force throughout this period, particularly following deregulation in the 1980s.

Civil list describes the members of the royal family who receive financial support from public funds. Debates about the civil list and royal finances emerged periodically throughout the late twentieth century.

Closed shop was a workplace arrangement requiring all workers to join a particular union to gain or maintain employment. This practice strengthened union power but became highly controversial, particularly under Conservative governments after 1979.

Commonwealth emerged as an international association comprising Britain and former British Empire territories. Member states including India, Pakistan, and various African, Caribbean, and Asian nations maintained ties with Britain whilst becoming independent.

Compassionate conservatism describes a political philosophy recognising the social consequences of economic policies. This approach characterised some strands of Conservative thinking, particularly among one-nation Conservatives.

Comprehensive school provides secondary education for all children in a given area regardless of academic ability, contrasting with the selective grammar school system. The expansion of comprehensive education from the 1960s onwards represented a major shift in British education policy.

Conviction politician describes someone who pursues policies based on firm beliefs rather than political expediency or compromise. Margaret Thatcher became the exemplar of this approach, contrasting with the post-war consensus politics that preceded her.

Council house refers to homes built by local authorities to provide accommodation for working-class families, often replacing slum housing. Council housing was central to post-war welfare provision, though the Right to Buy policy later reduced local authority housing stock significantly.

Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) is the state organisation responsible for presenting the prosecution's case in criminal trials. Established as part of reforms to the criminal justice system, the CPS determines which cases proceed to court.

D

Decimalisation transformed British currency in 1971, replacing the old system of pounds, shillings, and pence with a decimal system of 100 new pence to the pound. This change modernised Britain's monetary system, aligning it with most other countries.

Decriminalisation removes certain actions or behaviours from the scope of criminal law, meaning individuals can no longer face prosecution or fines for these activities. Various forms of decriminalisation occurred during this period, reflecting changing social attitudes.

Deflation describes a sustained fall in the general price level of goods and services. Though less common than inflation during this period, deflation poses economic challenges by potentially reducing consumer spending and business investment.

Denationalisation involves transferring publicly-owned industries back to private sector ownership. This process, more commonly known as privatisation, became a defining feature of Conservative policy after 1979.

Détente describes an easing of hostility between nations, particularly referring to the period of reduced Cold War tensions during the 1970s. Britain's foreign policy adjusted to this changed international climate.

Devaluation lowers a currency's value relative to other currencies in fixed exchange rate systems. Britain experienced significant devaluations in 1949 and 1967, reflecting economic difficulties and loss of international competitiveness.

Devolution transfers powers from central to lower levels of government. Labour's devolution programme after 1997, creating a Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly, represented the most significant constitutional change in modern British history.

Direct grant schools were selective grammar schools receiving state funding whilst maintaining independence. These institutions admitted many pupils on LEA scholarships but were phased out from 1976 as comprehensive education expanded.

Dry became a nickname for Conservatives firmly supporting monetarist economics and free-market policies. These Thatcherites contrasted with 'wets', who worried about the social consequences of such policies.

E

EFTA (European Free Trade Association) was created in 1960 by Britain along with Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland as an alternative to the EEC. EFTA membership reflected Britain's initial reluctance toward European integration.

European monetary union established a shared currency across participating EU member states. The conditions for joining were set by the Maastricht Treaty, and the euro came into operation in 1999, though Britain chose not to adopt it.

Europhile describes someone enthusiastic about Britain's involvement with European institutions. This term became increasingly important as European integration deepened and British attitudes polarised.

Eurosceptic refers to someone opposed to or suspicious of the EEC/EU and Britain's increasing integration with European structures. Euroscepticism grew within the Conservative Party particularly, contributing to divisions that weakened the Major government.

Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) was established in 1979 to stabilise exchange rates between different currencies in the European Economic Community by limiting fluctuations. Britain's membership from 1990 and dramatic exit in 1992 on Black Wednesday had major political and economic consequences.

F

Family allowance provided a weekly benefit for each child in a family. Renamed child benefit in 1977, this universal payment represented an important element of the welfare state.

Federalism describes a political system distributing power between central government and smaller constituent parts. Debates about federalism became relevant to discussions of European integration and devolution within Britain.

First-past-the-post is the voting system whereby the candidate receiving most votes in each constituency wins a parliamentary seat. This system favoured the two major parties and contributed to the difficulties faced by the Liberal Democrats and their predecessors.

FTSE 100 lists the top 100 companies by market capitalisation on the London Stock Exchange. The FTSE index became an important barometer of British economic performance.

G

GDP (Gross Domestic Product) measures the total value of all goods and services produced within a nation's economy. GDP growth rates became a standard measure of economic performance throughout this period.

Globalisation describes the process whereby the world became increasingly economically and culturally interconnected. Britain's economy became more integrated into global markets, affecting industrial structure, employment patterns, and economic policy.

H

'Handbag diplomacy' referred to Margaret Thatcher's confrontational negotiating style, contrasting with the more measured diplomatic approaches traditionally employed by British leaders. This term captured Thatcher's direct, uncompromising approach to international relations.

Hire purchase is a system allowing buyers to pay a deposit on expensive items then make monthly instalments with interest to complete the purchase. Hire purchase expanded significantly in the 1950s and 1960s, fuelling consumer spending.

Hung parliament describes a situation where no political party commands an overall majority in the House of Commons. Hung parliaments occurred in February 1974 and 2010, creating political uncertainty and requiring coalition or minority government.

I

Infrastructure encompasses the physical environment supporting modern society, including transport networks (roads, railways, airports), telecommunications, industrial facilities, public buildings, schools, and housing. The state of Britain's infrastructure became a recurring political issue.

Internment involves detaining suspected individuals without trial. The introduction of internment in Northern Ireland in 1971 proved highly controversial and arguably worsened the security situation.

Irish Republican Army (IRA) was an organisation fighting for Irish independence and later for a united Ireland. The IRA rejected the partition of Ireland and conducted a violent campaign during the Troubles, posing a major security challenge for British governments.

Isolationism describes a foreign policy strategy whereby a country avoids involvement in other nations' affairs. Though Britain traditionally played an active international role, debates about the appropriate extent of international commitments continued.

J

Junta refers to a military group ruling a country after seizing power through force. The Argentine military junta's invasion of the Falkland Islands in 1982 led to war with Britain.

L

'Lame duck' industry describes a sector unable to compete and survive without state support. Debates about supporting or allowing the decline of lame duck industries were central to industrial policy discussions.

Liberal interventionism represents a belief that countries should intervene in other nations for humanitarian purposes, such as supporting human rights. This approach influenced British foreign policy particularly under Tony Blair.

'Loony left' was a derogatory term used by right-wing media to describe left-wing local councils promoting liberal and politically progressive policies. This characterisation sought to discredit Labour-controlled councils in the 1980s.

M

MI5 is the British security service responsible for protecting national security against internal threats. MI5's role expanded during the Cold War and later in response to international terrorism.

N

National Front was a far-right political party founded in 1967 opposing non-white immigration. Though never achieving electoral success, the National Front's activities highlighted racial tensions in 1970s Britain.

National Service conscripted young men into military uniform for two years. Introduced in 1947 and lasting until 1960, National Service affected a generation of British men.

Nationalisation transferred key industries to state ownership. The post-war Labour government's extensive nationalisation programme brought coal, steel, railways, and other sectors under public control.

Nationalist in the British context usually describes someone supporting independence for Scotland or Wales, or favouring a united Ireland. Nationalist movements gained strength during this period, leading eventually to devolution.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) formed in 1949 as a military alliance between European and North American states to defend against perceived Soviet threats. NATO remained central to British defence policy throughout the Cold War and beyond.

NEETs describes 16-24 year olds Not in Education, Employment or Training. This category became important in discussions about youth unemployment and social exclusion.

New Commonwealth referred to countries recently gaining independence from Britain, particularly India, Pakistan, and West Indies nations. Immigration from New Commonwealth countries transformed British society.

New Labour was the term Tony Blair and his supporters used after 1994 to demonstrate the party's transformation, distancing it from traditional Labour policies and appealing to middle-class voters.

O

One Member, One Vote (OMOV) gave individual Labour Party members votes on candidate selection, reducing trade union influence. This reform represented part of Labour's modernisation in the 1990s.

One-nation Conservative describes those believing all social classes have mutual obligations, with particular responsibility falling on the better-off to ensure the well-being of less fortunate citizens. This tradition, associated with Benjamin Disraeli, contrasted with the harsher free-market policies later adopted.

P

Paramilitary describes non-state military forces. Various paramilitary organisations operated in Northern Ireland during the Troubles, conducting violent campaigns.

Patriarchy refers to social structures privileging men over women. Second-wave feminism challenged patriarchal structures in British society during this period.

Prices and incomes policy involved government intervention to limit wage increases and price rises in negotiations between unions and employers. Such policies were attempted by governments of both parties in the 1960s and 1970s.

Productivity measures efficiency, indicating how much output is produced per worker, per shift, or per hour worked. Britain's relatively poor productivity compared to international competitors became a persistent concern.

R

Race Relations Board was established to investigate discrimination complaints and promote better race relations through publicity, research, and financial support. This body reflected growing recognition of racial discrimination as a serious problem.

Referendum allows the electorate to vote directly on a particular issue rather than simply choosing representatives. Referendums on EEC membership (1975), Scottish and Welsh devolution (1979, 1997), and other issues represented important moments in British democracy.

Repatriation means returning someone to their place of origin. Some politicians controversially advocated for the repatriation of Commonwealth immigrants.

Right to Buy was a policy allowing council house tenants to purchase their homes, typically at significant discounts. This popular Thatcherite policy expanded home ownership but reduced social housing availability.

Run on the pound describes rapid selling of sterling in international currency markets, causing its value to fall dramatically. Sterling crises occurred at various points, notably in 1967 and 1992.

S

Secondary picketing involves picketing locations not directly involved in a labour dispute, such as suppliers or customers of the employer in dispute. This tactic expanded strikes' impact but became illegal under Conservative anti-union legislation.

Sectarian relates to divisions based on religious identity. In Northern Ireland, sectarian divisions between Protestants and Catholics underpinned the Troubles.

Social Chapter formed part of the Maastricht Treaty, aiming to regulate working conditions including maximum hours and employment rights. The Major government negotiated an opt-out from the Social Chapter, which Labour later adopted.

Social Contract involved voluntary pay restraint by trade unions in return for the government repealing Conservative industrial relations legislation and implementing price controls. This agreement between Labour and unions in the 1970s ultimately collapsed.

Social exclusion encompasses various interconnected problems including unemployment, inadequate skills, low incomes, poor housing, high crime rates, poor health, and family breakdown affecting individuals or communities. Addressing social exclusion became an important policy goal.

'Special relationship' describes the close ties between Britain and the United States. This relationship remained important throughout the period, though its exact nature and Britain's ability to influence American policy were often debated.

Spin doctor is a spokesperson employed to present events favourably to media, particularly on behalf of political parties. The increased prominence of spin doctors reflected changing media management techniques.

'Stop-go' economics derived its name from the pattern of economic expansion followed by contraction. Governments would stimulate growth ('go') but then apply brakes ('stop') when this produced inflation or balance of payments problems, creating an unstable economic cycle.

'Sus law' gave police officers authority to stop and search individuals they suspected might commit a crime. This law proved controversial, particularly regarding its disproportionate use against young black men, and was eventually repealed.

T

Taliban was a fundamentalist Islamic movement that seized control of Afghanistan following civil war and Soviet troop withdrawal in 1989. The Taliban's hosting of Al-Qaeda led to British involvement in Afghanistan after 2001.

Taoiseach is the prime minister of Ireland. British-Irish relations, particularly regarding Northern Ireland, meant the Taoiseach became an important figure in British politics.

Teddy boys wore distinctive clothing including drainpipe trousers and styled hair, with behaviour perceived as challenging to older generations and established social order. This youth subculture emerged in the 1950s, marking the beginning of distinct youth cultures in post-war Britain.

Think tank describes an organisation researching potential social, political, and economic policies. Think tanks could be attached to particular ideologies or maintain neutrality. Various think tanks influenced policy development during this period.

The Third Way attempted to chart a middle course between traditional socialist state intervention and Thatcherite free-market policies. This approach, associated with New Labour after 1997, emphasised the state's role whilst accepting market economics.

Trade unions represent workers' interests in pay and working conditions, using industrial action such as strikes to pressure employers and government. Union power peaked in the 1970s before being significantly reduced by Conservative legislation in the 1980s.

Trotskyite describes followers of Leon Trotsky's Marxist ideology believing in permanent international working-class revolution. Various Trotskyite groups operated on the left wing of British politics, particularly in the 1970s and 1980s.

U

Unanimity requires agreement by all parties involved. The requirement for unanimity in some EU decision-making gave individual member states, including Britain, veto power.

Unilateral nuclear disarmament advocated renouncing and disposing of nuclear weapons without waiting for international agreements or reciprocal action by other nuclear powers. The Labour Party adopted this policy in the early 1980s, though it proved electorally unpopular.

Unionist describes supporters of maintaining the union of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland as the United Kingdom. Unionist parties in Northern Ireland represented Protestant communities opposing Irish reunification.

V

Vote of no confidence allows Parliament to vote on whether the government retains sufficient support to continue governing. Losing such a vote requires the government to call a general election. James Callaghan's government fell to a vote of no confidence in 1979.

W

Wet became a dismissive nickname Margaret Thatcher and supporters used for Conservatives they considered excessively concerned about the social consequences of monetarist policies. These 'wets' represented the one-nation Conservative tradition.

White paper is a government document outlining a possible policy direction without making firm commitments. White papers typically preceded legislation, allowing for consultation and debate.

'Wildcat' strike describes sudden unofficial industrial action begun without reference to national union leadership or formal procedures. Such strikes became more common in the 1970s, undermining union leaders' authority.

Y

Yom Kippur War occurred in October 1973 when Israel fought a coalition of Arab states including Egypt and Syria. This conflict led to the OPEC oil embargo against Western nations supporting Israel, triggering the oil crisis that severely affected Britain's economy.

Yuppie (young urban professional) described affluent young people working in cities with substantial disposable income spent on consumer goods. This term became associated with 1980s culture, particularly in London's financial sector.

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