Environmentalism (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Environmentalism
The 1970s witnessed growing public awareness of environmental issues in Britain, though the movement remained relatively marginal within mainstream politics. Various pressure groups emerged or expanded their operations during this decade, advocating for protection of the natural world against the perceived threats posed by modern industrial society, urban expansion, and agricultural practices. These organizations employed different strategies, ranging from traditional lobbying to more confrontational forms of protest, yet they shared a common concern about humanity's impact on the environment.
While environmental activism gained momentum during the 1970s, it remained outside the political mainstream. The decade marked a transitional period where environmental concerns began to receive attention but had not yet achieved widespread political influence or electoral success.
Key concepts
Understanding the terminology used in environmental debates is essential for grasping the issues that concerned activists during this period.
Ribbon development refers to the expansion of urban areas through the construction of additional buildings along roads extending outward from towns and cities. This pattern of development created long strips of housing and commercial properties that stretched into the countryside without proper planning controls.
Green belts are designated areas of countryside immediately surrounding urban centres where building is either prohibited or severely restricted. The purpose of these protected zones is to prevent uncontrolled urban sprawl, maintain adequate planning standards, and ensure that town and city residents retain access to rural landscapes.
Biodiversity describes the variety of life forms present on Earth. This term became increasingly common in debates about human impact on the environment, particularly as concerns grew about species extinction and habitat destruction.
Non-violent direct action involves taking practical steps to advance a cause by physically opposing an opponent without using or threatening violence, though such actions sometimes operate outside legal boundaries. Examples include individuals or groups positioning themselves in the path of vehicles to obstruct or draw attention to activities such as the transportation of weapons or nuclear waste.
Environmental pressure groups
The environmental organizations active during the 1970s represented a spectrum of approaches. Established groups like CPRE worked within the system through lobbying and maintaining establishment connections. Newer organizations like Greenpeace embraced more confrontational tactics including non-violent direct action. This diversity of methods reflected different philosophies about how environmental change could best be achieved.
Council for the Protection of Rural England (CPRE)
Established in 1926, the CPRE was the oldest of the major environmental organizations active during the 1970s. The organization opposed ribbon development and campaigned for the creation and protection of green belts, viewing these as essential tools for preserving national parks and the overall appearance of the countryside.
Throughout its existence, the CPRE enjoyed support from politicians, journalists, and members of the royal family, which gave the organization considerable influence within establishment circles. This respectability proved advantageous when lobbying for environmental legislation.
Friends of the Earth (FOE)
Friends of the Earth was founded in the United States in 1969 and established an active presence in Britain within two years. Initially, the organization concentrated on nuclear energy issues, reflecting widespread public concern about the risks associated with nuclear power generation.
However, FOE soon broadened its focus to encompass problems related to transport, waste management, and food production. This expansion reflected the organization's recognition that environmental degradation stemmed from multiple sources across different sectors of modern society.
FOE's transition from single-issue campaigning to a broader environmental agenda exemplified how environmental organizations developed more comprehensive critiques of industrial society throughout the 1970s. This shift acknowledged the interconnected nature of environmental problems.
Greenpeace
Greenpeace began operations in the United States during the early 1970s. The organization developed a comprehensive critique of political, military, agricultural, and industrial developments, grounding its arguments in concerns about biodiversity.
In 1972, Greenpeace volunteers sailed into the area where French military forces were conducting nuclear tests. Photographs revealing the violence directed at these protesters attracted both press attention and public sympathy, establishing Greenpeace's reputation for dramatic, media-friendly protests. Later campaigns targeted whales and industrial effluent, though the organization maintained its commitment to non-violent direct action throughout.
The Ecology (Green) Party
The Ecology Party, which later became the Green Party, was founded during the mid-1970s. In the 1979 general election, the party won no seats, but its performance exceeded that of several smaller parties, finishing behind the Liberals but ahead of the National Front.
This modest success demonstrated that environmental concerns could translate into electoral support, even if the movement remained far from achieving parliamentary representation.
Aims, beliefs, and activities
The environmental organizations active during the 1970s shared a common belief that modern western agriculture, industry, and urbanization produced effects that must be considered in all current and future decision-making processes. However, these groups adopted different approaches to advancing their cause.
Some campaigning focused on political action directed at large-scale targets, such as multinational companies. Other organizations emphasized lifestyle choices made by individual consumers, arguing that personal decisions about consumption patterns could collectively produce environmental benefits.
Both CPRE and FOE participated in the 1975 Consumer Congress, which was organized by the National Consumer Council alongside charities concerned with old age, housing, and unemployment. This participation demonstrated the environmental movement's willingness to collaborate with other social reform organizations and to frame environmental protection as a consumer rights issue. By connecting environmental concerns to everyday economic decisions, these groups attempted to broaden their appeal beyond dedicated environmentalists to the general public.
Government response
Limited political priority
The environment did not constitute a political priority for either politicians or voters during the 1970s. Any environmental legislation passed by previous governments had been driven by immediate human needs rather than ecological concerns.
The 1956 Clean Air Act responded to urban air pollution, which had occasionally caused large numbers of deaths. The 1968 Town and Country Planning Act restricted building on green belt land and areas of outstanding natural beauty. Although these measures proved important, they should be understood as reactive responses to specific crises or long-standing preservation goals. The CPRE had lobbied for such steps, demonstrating the organization's acceptability within establishment circles.
Institutional developments
Under Edward Heath's Conservative government, the Ministry of Housing and Local Government was replaced by the Department of the Environment. This reorganization indicated potential for widening the government's environmental responsibilities and, in modern terminology, suggested a "greening" of its brief. However, the practical impact of this administrative change remained limited.
Harold Wilson, demonstrating his characteristic awareness of shifting public opinion, established the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution in 1970 to advise government and parliament.
For 40 years, this body produced reports on both rural and urban matters. During the 1970s, it addressed concerns about industrial and agricultural pollution, as well as issues surrounding pollution in estuaries and coastal waters, air quality, and nuclear power. The Commission provided a mechanism through which environmental concerns could receive official consideration, even if recommendations were not always implemented.
Legislation
In 1974, parliament passed the Water (Control and Prevention of Pollution) Act, which aimed to maintain or restore the health and cleanness of Britain's water supplies. This legislation interested more radical campaigning organizations while also remaining something the CPRE could support, demonstrating how water quality concerns bridged different environmental perspectives.
Following the 1973 signing of an international convention on trade, parliament passed the 1976 Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act to restrict the importation and exportation of certain animals and plants. This represented Britain's participation in emerging international efforts to protect biodiversity through trade controls.
Media coverage and public awareness
Influential publications
The 1962 publication of American scientist Rachel Carson's Silent Spring attracted considerable attention in Britain. The book reported on the harmful effects of pesticides on the natural world, initiating a campaign against DDT that continued throughout the 1970s. The pesticide was finally banned in Britain in 1984, demonstrating both the slow pace of regulatory change and the persistence required of environmental campaigners.
Worked Example: From Publication to Policy
Rachel Carson's Silent Spring demonstrates the long timeline between raising environmental awareness and achieving regulatory change:
- 1962: Book published, exposing pesticide dangers
- 1970s: Sustained campaigning against DDT continues
- 1984: DDT finally banned in Britain
This 22-year gap illustrates the challenges environmental campaigners faced in translating public awareness into concrete policy changes.
The 1972 publication of Limits to Growth similarly attracted media coverage. This book offered predictions about the future of the planet, drawing attention to limited non-renewable resources. In addition to population growth, the authors examined industrialization, pollution, and food production, arguing that these trends would lead to resource depletion.
The book was widely and energetically discussed, as it questioned the prevailing assumption that economic growth was beneficial. However, the reception proved largely hostile, with many commentators arguing that the case had been overstated.
Limitations of media attention
Outside controversies such as those generated by Silent Spring and Limits to Growth, media coverage of environmental issues remained infrequent. Newspapers and broadcasters did not regard the environment as a continuing story deserving regular attention, unlike crime, politics, sport, or foreign affairs.
Consequently, news organizations employed no staff members who specialized in environmental reporting. Individual stories would occasionally emerge but then disappear, leaving minimal lasting impact. The natural world was usually relegated to "nature notes" columnists, except when dramatic events such as floods or earthquakes occurred. This sporadic coverage hindered efforts to build sustained public awareness of environmental issues.
Key Points to Remember:
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The 1970s saw increased environmental activism through organizations like CPRE (established 1926), Friends of the Earth (active in UK from early 1970s), and Greenpeace (early 1970s), though the movement remained marginal in mainstream politics.
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These groups shared concerns about the environmental impact of modern agriculture, industry, and urbanization, but employed different strategies ranging from establishment lobbying to non-violent direct action.
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Government response remained limited: the environment was not a political priority, though some institutional changes occurred (Department of Environment created under Heath) and specific legislation passed (1974 Water Act, 1976 Endangered Species Act).
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The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, established by Wilson in 1970, provided a formal mechanism for environmental concerns to reach government, operating for 40 years and covering diverse issues from industrial pollution to nuclear power.
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Media coverage of environmental issues remained sporadic and limited, with influential publications like Rachel Carson's Silent Spring (1962) and Limits to Growth (1972) generating debate but failing to establish sustained journalistic attention to environmental matters.