Core Ideas and Tensions (AQA A-Level Politics): Revision Notes

Core Ideas and Tensions

Nationalism has faced significant challenges in recent times, yet it remains a powerful political force. Understanding the core ideas of nationalism and the tensions within nationalist thought is essential for grasping how this ideology continues to shape political debate.

Recent challenges to nationalism

Contemporary nationalism confronts several developments that both threaten and revitalise the ideology:

Globalisation has increased interconnectedness worldwide, particularly economically. This limits states' ability to control economic activity within their borders, weakening national autonomy. However, this has also sparked nationalist reactions against perceived loss of sovereignty.

Cosmopolitanism presents the world as a single society where human rights and obligations transcend national, cultural, religious or ethnic boundaries. This challenges ideas of national unity and identity by promoting a global identity.

Supranationalism refers to bodies positioned above nation states that can impose laws and decisions upon them. The European Union exemplifies this development, which removes national autonomy by creating shared sovereignty arrangements.

Immigration increases diversity within societies, bringing together different groups with distinct identities and cultures. Many view this as threatening national identity and unity.

Different forms of nationalism respond to these challenges differently. Liberal nationalism embraces the liberal internationalism of globalisation, accepts international law and human rights, proposes multiculturalism as a means of creating unity from diversity, and views supranationalism as enhancing state power through pooled sovereignty.

In contrast, a more regressive, right-wing nationalism has emerged in opposition to these changes, viewing them as genuine threats to cultural or ethnic identities. Examples include UKIP and eurosceptic elements within the Conservative Party in Britain, Donald Trump's 'America First' message, and nationalist parties across Europe such as the AfD in Germany, the Freedom Party in Austria, and the Law and Justice Party in Poland.

These challenges have also led to a revival of pan-Africanism, opposing the neocolonialism perceived at the heart of globalisation and free trade.

Core ideas of nationalism

Human nature and nationality

Nationality represents a form of consciousness through which individuals identify with a nation based on a common identity that distinguishes them from other nations. This identification shapes how people understand themselves and their relationship to others.

Nations function as cultural entities, binding people together through common ties. However, defining what constitutes a nation proves difficult because no clear set of objective factors exists. Rather, a nation emerges from consciousness among people that they constitute a nation. Several factors potentially contribute to nationhood:

Language can define national consciousness, as argued by von Herder regarding the German language. However, states like Belgium and Switzerland contain multiple languages, demonstrating that linguistic unity is not essential for nationhood.

Religion has become particularly important recently in forming national consciousness across the Middle East and North Africa, especially Islam. Yet many nations encompass diverse religions, such as the United Kingdom.

Ethnicity involves a distinctive population, territorial area or cultural group providing national identity. In terms of ethnic identity, this appears in Maurras's ideas about the French nation.

Cultural nationalism manifests in different forms. It can be progressive and liberal, as seen in minority nationalisms among Scots or Catalans. It also appears in Garvey's black nationalism and pan-Africanism, based on the common ancestry of all Africans, representing progressive anti-colonial thought. However, cultural nationalism can also be exclusive and reactionary, as in Maurras's ideas, whilst racialism proves both completely exclusive and aggressive.

An alternative approach involves the political nation rather than the cultural nation. Here, community is defined by shared values and ideals rather than culture or history, as in the civic nationalism advocated by Rousseau.

The state

The concept of self-determination arose from Rousseau's thinking and helped reshape Europe's map during the nineteenth century. It appeared rational and progressive in opposing absolute monarchies and imperial domination.

The principle of 'respect for equal rights and self-determination of peoples' forms a key element of the UN Charter, demonstrating its continued importance in international relations.

The nation state merges the concepts of nation and state, harmonising them together. However, the nation state remains more of an ideal than a reality, as perfect alignment between nation and state rarely exists.

Nationalism also appears among minority groups seeking to establish their own state or achieve devolution to gain autonomy for protecting their cultural identity.

Different nationalist thinkers propose varying roles for the state:

Liberal nationalists view the state's role as building and maintaining shared values and ideals necessary for realising state goals.

Conservative nationalists see the state as preserving order and the organic nation, or implementing policies to return the state to its golden era.

Mazzini considered the state the ultimate expression of people's unity.

Von Herder argued the state should be based on people with common linguistic and cultural heritage.

Maurras believed people should be fully subservient to the state, willing to sacrifice everything for it.

Garvey saw the only important state as the free United States of Africa, rejecting traditional Western state concepts.

Society

Society can be organised around civic nationalism principles, following Rousseau's thinking. In civic nationalism, cultural identity matters less than shared culture. This form offers a way of building nationalism where different cultures exist within territory or where large-scale immigration occurs. Newcomers can become full members of the nation by adopting the nation's language, values and political institutions.

Mazzini argued all societies should be free and equal communities based on representative democracy.

Von Herder viewed society as a cultural concept emerging from each community's language, arts and history, making each society unique and family-like.

Maurras based society around ethnicity, arguing society must be ordered and geared to serve the nation. He proposed protecting society by excluding other ethnic groups from territory, claiming some societies are superior to others.

Garvey envisaged African society emerging from African culture by rejecting white views of Africa and black Africans, educating Africans about their roots.

The economy

Liberal internationalists view free trade between nations as developing interdependence and improving chances of global peace by increasing material costs of war for societies.

Civic nationalism enables states to achieve political goals, including economic policies such as welfare provision and taxation. These policies depend on individuals viewing themselves as part of the wider community.

Conservative nationalism argues states should adopt economic policies defending national interests. These policies can involve either free trade (as under Margaret Thatcher) or protectionism (as under Donald Trump).

Anti-colonialism and post-colonialism developed thought based on socialist internationalism, where capitalism and globalisation transformed Southern nations into the world's working class, exploited to fund Western luxuries.

Garvey considered economic self-sufficiency vital to black nationalism in the USA, arguing black Africans should develop their own economic systems and projects for their own benefit.

Tensions within nationalism

Rational versus romantic nationalism

The most rational approach to dividing the world involves creating natural political communities that are self-governing. Nation states and nations represent modern constructions under this view. However, nation states often become states where the nation serves state interests rather than the state serving national interests.

Romantic nationalism views the nation as a historical entity with roots in pre-modern times, held together by common culture and language that are distinct. The state's job involves serving the nation, protecting its culture and ensuring its future.

Progressive versus regressive nationalism

Progressive nationalism proposes that nationalism can help nations achieve political, social and economic progress. This occurs by freeing nations from domination so they can rule themselves.

Regressive nationalism aims to return society to a previous golden era based on romantic views of traditional culture, institutions and values. Conservative nationalists would consider achieving this return to previous society as progress, hence eurosceptic Conservatives and UKIP's views about Brexit.

Inclusive versus exclusive nationalism

Inclusive nationalism does not view culture, race or religion as reasons to exclude people from the state. As long as individuals accept society's values and language, they are welcomed, allowing diverse society. In the UK, this involves passing the citizenship test and learning English; in the USA, taking the naturalisation test in English on US history and government.

Exclusive nationalism views culture as defining the nation, requiring newcomers to adopt the dominant culture. Integral nationalists believe newcomers cannot become part of ethnic groups because they lack shared culture. Racialist variants equate nationality with race, which is exclusive by birth.

Exam tip

When discussing inclusive and exclusive nationalism, provide specific examples of how different nationalist movements apply these principles in practice to demonstrate your understanding.

Expansionism versus self-determination

Historically, expansionism expressed itself through imperialism and colonialism, movements like pan-Slavism, or fascist expansionist policies. In the modern world, states like the USA are seen as involved in neocolonialism, where their power over other states operates economically, politically and culturally without requiring conquest. Pan-Slavism has re-emerged in the Russian state.

Self-determination remains a powerful ideal, enshrined in the UN Charter and central to independence movements globally. Kurds, Catalans and Scots exemplify nations seeking their own state.

Liberal versus conservative nationalism

Liberal nationalism concerns itself with freedom of all nations and freedom of all individuals within those nations. This involves nations freeing themselves from state nationalism or oppression by foreign states. However, this desire for freedom can lead to violence and conflict, as seen in the civil war in Sri Lanka between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamils, who desired a separate Tamil state.

Conservative nationalism tends to develop in well-established states, such as France and the UK, focusing more on maintaining organic society than on individual freedom within the nation. It is generally viewed as wanting to keep society as it is or returning it to a previous golden era, making it appear regressive whilst liberal nationalism seems progressive.

Exam tip

When analysing nationalism's tensions, do not merely explain differences and similarities. Evaluate the significance of those differences and similarities, considering their impact on political outcomes and policy-making.