The Patriarchal Nature of Christianity (AQA A-Level Religious Studies): Revision Notes
The Patriarchal Nature of Christianity
Introduction
The debate about whether Christianity is inherently patriarchal and sexist has divided feminist theologians. Two key figures represent opposing views:
- Daphne Hampson argues Christianity is irredeemably sexist and cannot be reformed
- Rosemary Radford Ruether believes Christianity can be re-stated in feminist terms
This fundamental divide represents one of the most significant debates in contemporary feminist theology. The question at stake is not merely academic—it determines whether feminists can remain within Christian tradition or must move beyond it entirely.
Understanding these contrasting perspectives is essential for evaluating whether Christianity and feminism are compatible.
Daphne Hampson: post-Christian feminist
Christianity is not true
Hampson defines 'Christian' as believing in the uniqueness of events surrounding Jesus of Nazareth. This includes:
- The resurrection of Jesus from the dead
- Jesus having a different relationship with God than anyone else
- Or both of these beliefs
Hampson's rejection of these claims:
Since the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, we know such events are impossible. Hampson argues that one-off events that break natural laws, like resurrection, cannot occur, and the idea of one person having a unique relationship with God makes no sense.
- The Enlightenment established that miraculous events violate our understanding of natural laws
- Historical claims about resurrection cannot be verified or reconciled with modern scientific knowledge
- The concept of exclusive divine relationships contradicts universal spiritual equality
Christianity is not moral
Hampson argues that Christianity prevents genuine moral responsibility because:
- People should take responsibility for themselves
- Christians refer to historical revelation rather than making independent moral choices
- They obey a transcendent God instead of exercising free moral choice
The problem of historical religion:
Christianity looks to a past revelation and a transcendent God. Christians cannot start from the present; they must always consider what they believe to be God's word. This dependence on the past prevents authentic moral decision-making.
For Hampson, true moral agency requires autonomy and independence from external authority, including divine command. Christianity's reliance on revelation undermines this autonomy.
Christianity is irredeemably sexist
Key term: Irredeemably sexist - This describes the view that Christianity is inevitably sexist, making it illogical to be both a feminist and a Christian.
Hampson's argument:
As a 'historical' religion, Christianity brings the outlook and imagery of a past patriarchal age into the present. This has profound effects:
The Problem of Male Normativity:
- Christianity affects people at a subconscious level through its imagery and language
- Being male becomes seen as the norm for humanity
- Women are viewed as different, secondary, and 'the other'
- This male-centered perspective is embedded in Christian theology, scripture, and tradition
Strong language:
- Hampson describes any system that makes one part of humanity the norm as potentially fascist
- She applies this term to Christianity insofar as it normalises male experience
- This provocative language emphasizes the severity of the problem she identifies
Hampson's alternative view
Despite her critique, Hampson acknowledges that the Christian myth has served as a vehicle for people's love of God in the West. However, she argues:
A Contemporary Religious Outlook:
- People should express awareness of God in contemporary terms
- God should not be seen as 'out there' and anthropomorphic (human-like)
- Instead, God is a dimension of the one reality to which humanity belongs
- It makes sense to speak of 'drawing on God' or 'being open to God'
- This religious outlook need not be gendered
Hampson envisions a post-Christian spirituality that maintains religious consciousness while abandoning the patriarchal structures of traditional Christianity.
Rosemary Radford Ruether: reformist feminist
Background and approach
Ruether is a feminist, liberation theologian, and member of the Roman Catholic Church. She argues that:
- Christianity is a religious culture that can be re-stated in feminist terms
- Past events, present experience, and future hopes all contribute to understanding Christianity
- The Christian tradition contains resources for feminist reformation
Unlike Hampson, Ruether believes the problem is not Christianity itself, but rather patriarchal interpretations that have dominated Christian history. She sees Christianity as flexible enough to accommodate feminist consciousness.
Jesus as proclaimer of liberation
Ruether's interpretation of Jesus' ministry:
Social injustice and religious hierarchies in Jesus' time resulted from male domination. However, Ruether argues that Jesus challenged these structures:
- Jesus sided with the oppressed and outcasts of society, including women
- He criticised oppressive authority, particularly religious rules that limited rather than liberated people
- His ministry demonstrated a preferential option for the marginalized
Jesus' Teaching on the Sabbath:
Jesus criticised rules forbidding acts of charity on the Sabbath, concluding 'The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath' (Mark 2:27).
This teaching demonstrates how Jesus prioritised human need over rigid rules, showing his concern for liberation rather than legalistic adherence to patriarchal religious structures.
Androgynous Christology
Key term: Androgynous - This means man-woman-like, referring to someone or something having both male and female qualities.
Ruether's view of Jesus:
Ruether presents Jesus as transcending traditional gender boundaries:
Jesus' Androgynous Character:
- Jesus is presented as understanding both the needs and strengths of women
- He exemplified female traits of healing and caring
- He also showed male traits of power and authority
- Jesus embodies both male and female aspects of human nature
- He is seen as struggling to help others, not as an impassive, distant authority figure
Contrast with traditional theology:
- Traditional theology sees Jesus carrying punishment for sin
- This is part of a scheme based on authority, rules, and punishment in patriarchal society
- It reflects a male-dominated view of God
- Ruether argues Christianity today can recognise both female and male qualities in God
This androgynous Christology provides a theological foundation for moving beyond patriarchal interpretations of Jesus and God.
Christianity as a religion of emancipation from patriarchy
Through the work of the Spirit, Christianity can become:
- A feminist culture of emancipation
- A religion that interprets gospel stories in the context of women's experience
- Helpful in developing feminist consciousness
Ruether's vision of transformation:
From 'To Change the World: Christology and Cultural Criticism':
The emergence of women points to a messianic future that will transform the male world of war, conflict, and exploitation into the woman's world of peace and reconciliation.
Ruether sees the feminist movement not as external to Christianity but as a continuation of the gospel's liberating message.
Female nature and eco-feminism
Ruether's argument about female nature:
The female nature is in some ways more Christ-like than male nature:
Characteristics of Female Nature:
- Many women are not driven by power, authority, rules, and punishment
- Women do not exclude those who are different; instead they are welcoming and inclusive
- Female nature is caring, healing, and forgiving
- These qualities make Jesus different from other leaders in history
Connection to eco-feminism:
Ruether links feminist theology with environmental concerns:
- Women's biological nature and role in childbearing connects them to nature
- Nature itself, constantly giving birth and nurturing, may be seen as inherently female
- It is natural to look to women to develop more pure, ecologically-inspired ethics
- This links feminist theology with environmental concerns about male-dominated exploitation of the planet
This eco-feminist perspective suggests that patriarchy harms not only women but also the natural world. Both women and nature have been objectified and exploited under patriarchal systems, making their liberation interconnected.
Comparison of Hampson and Ruether
The fundamental choice between these two positions represents a critical decision for feminist theologians:
Hampson's position:
- Christian claims could not possibly be true
- Past patriarchal history is central to Christianity, making it inevitably sexist
- Men and women together need to find new ways of speaking about God
- Must move beyond Christianity entirely
Ruether's position:
- Female thinking exists within the New Testament and Christian theology
- It is possible to remain Christian while experiencing and expressing women's aspirations
- The Holy Spirit and Jesus' example can inspire feminist reformation
- Christianity can be transformed from within
The key question: Can Christianity be reformed, or must it be abandoned? This reflects whether you view the patriarchal elements as:
- Essential to Christianity (Hampson)
- Or as cultural accretions that can be removed (Ruether)
Exam tips
Exam Preparation:
- Be able to clearly distinguish between Hampson's post-Christian feminism and Ruether's reformist approach
- Understand the meaning and significance of 'irredeemably sexist'
- Know specific examples, such as Jesus' teaching about the Sabbath
- Be prepared to evaluate which approach is more convincing
- Consider whether historical religions can ever fully escape their patriarchal origins
- Think about whether the concept of androgynous Christology is supported by biblical evidence
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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Hampson argues Christianity is irredeemably sexist because it is a historical religion that brings patriarchal imagery from the past into the present, making it impossible to be both Christian and feminist
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Ruether believes Christianity can be reformed through recognising Jesus as embodying both male and female qualities and interpreting Christianity through the lens of women's experience
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Androgynous Christology presents Jesus as having both male traits (power, authority) and female traits (healing, caring)
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The fundamental divide is between those who think Christianity must be abandoned (Hampson) and those who believe it can be transformed (Ruether)
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Both thinkers agree that traditional Christianity has been patriarchal, but they disagree on whether this can be overcome