Christianity and Ethics (AQA A-Level Religious Studies): Revision Notes
Christianity and Ethics
Overview of the dialogue between Christianity and ethics
The dialogue between Christianity and ethics examines how Christian moral principles interact with various ethical theories and contemporary moral issues. This topic requires understanding both Christian perspectives and secular ethical approaches.
Key Christian moral principles
Christian ethics is built upon several foundational principles:
Sanctity of Life principle
This fundamental principle exists in both strong and weak forms and underpins Christian responses to issues of human and animal life and death:
- Strong form: life is absolutely sacred and must never be taken
- Weak form: life is sacred but may be taken under certain circumstances
Dominion and Stewardship
Two complementary concepts addressing human responsibility over animals and the environment:
- Dominion: humans have authority over creation (Genesis 1:28)
- Stewardship: humans are caretakers responsible for protecting creation
- These concepts create a balance between using and protecting the natural world
Christian virtues
Christian teaching recognizes two categories of virtues that work together:
Cardinal virtues (attainable through human effort):
- Prudence (practical wisdom)
- Justice
- Fortitude (courage)
- Temperance (self-control)
Theological virtues (given through God's grace):
- Faith
- Hope
- Love
Together, these form the 'seven virtues' in Catholic teaching.
Other core principles
- Obedience to God's commands
- Following the example of Jesus
- Emphasis on personal disposition and intention, not just actions
Christian responses to deontological ethics (Kant)
Deontological ethics focuses on duty and moral rules, with Kant's Categorical Imperative being the primary example studied.
How Kantian ethics relates to Christianity
Similarities
Both ethical systems share significant common ground:
- Both emphasise duty and moral obligation
- Kant's concept of the summum bonum (highest good) resembles the Christian goal of heaven
- For Kant, the summum bonum is when virtue receives its just reward through God's intervention
- Both stress the importance of intention over consequences
- Universal moral laws exist independently of individual preferences
Differences
Despite similarities, key distinctions exist:
- Kant bases morality on reason alone, whilst Christianity bases it on divine revelation
- Kant's approach is autonomous (self-legislating), whereas Christian ethics involves obedience to God
- Kantian ethics does not require belief in God for morality, though Kant saw God as necessary for the summum bonum
Teleological aspects of Kant's ethics
Though primarily deontological, Kant's ethics has a teleological element that creates interesting parallels with Christianity:
- The summum bonum represents an ultimate goal where virtue is rewarded
- This parallels the Christian belief in heaven as the ultimate reward for moral living
- God plays a role in ensuring the fairness of this reward system
Key Points to Remember:
When discussing Kant and Christianity, consider both the deontological aspects (duty, moral law) and the teleological aspects (summum bonum as ultimate goal). Demonstrate understanding that Kantian ethics has elements compatible with Christian thought, particularly regarding intention and ultimate justice.
Christian responses to teleological and consequential ethics (Bentham)
Bentham's Utilitarianism judges actions by their consequences, specifically whether they produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
How Bentham's Utilitarianism relates to Christianity
Compatibility
Both systems share important values:
- Both systems are teleological, meaning they focus on ultimate goals
- Bentham's aim of a just, fair and happy society shares values with Christian ethics
- Both emphasise concern for others' wellbeing
- The principle of maximising happiness can align with Christian love (agape)
Key differences
The systems diverge on fundamental questions about existence and purpose:
- Bentham's utilitarianism is consequentialist and teleological but focuses on the 'here and now'
- Bentham did not believe in life after death
- Christian teleology looks forward to eternal life with God in the Kingdom of Heaven
- Christianity bases moral decisions on divine commands and principles, not solely on consequences
- Bentham's happiness is pleasure-based, whilst Christian happiness involves relationship with God
Why the systems differ
The absence of belief in an afterlife means Bentham's system has no eternal dimension:
- Bentham's focus is entirely on creating earthly happiness
- Christianity views earthly life as preparation for eternal life
- This fundamentally affects how consequences are evaluated
Christian responses to character-based ethics (Virtue Ethics)
Virtue Ethics, particularly Aristotelian virtue ethics, focuses on developing good character rather than following rules or calculating consequences.
Compatibility between Aristotelian virtue ethics and Christian ethics
Strong connections
The most significant link comes through Aquinas' Natural Moral Law:
- Aquinas synthesised Aristotelian ethics with Christian teaching
- He adopted Aristotle's teleological focus: everything has a specific purpose or end
- Aristotle's goal of eudaimonia (human flourishing) becomes union with God in Aquinas
- The cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance) come directly from Aristotle
- These are combined with theological virtues (faith, hope, love) from St Paul
Virtues as essential to Christian morality
All Christian ethical approaches emphasise virtues to some degree:
- If Christians focus on developing virtues, this contributes to the community's wellbeing
- Character formation is central to Christian spiritual development
- However, some Christians follow Divine Command Theory, which focuses on obeying God's decrees rather than developing virtues
- This approach is less compatible with Aristotelian thinking
Jesus as the epitome of virtue
Jesus is often seen as demonstrating perfect virtue:
- Like Aristotle, Jesus emphasised personal disposition over mere rule-following
- In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus teaches that morality concerns the heart and intentions
- On adultery: looking lustfully at someone is already committing adultery in one's heart (Matthew 5:27-28)
- On murder: being angry with someone makes one liable to judgement (Matthew 5:21-22)
- Jesus taught that true obedience comes from having a virtuous mind, not just performing right actions
Key agreement between Jesus and Aristotle
Both recognise that certain actions can never be virtuous:
- Aristotle stated that adultery, theft and murder cannot correspond to anything in a virtuous mind
- These actions have no mean position, no right way to commit them
- They are simply wrong, regardless of how they are done
- Jesus similarly taught that these actions are fundamentally incompatible with virtue
Limitations of the comparison
Jesus' teaching sometimes appears extreme compared to Aristotle's doctrine of the mean:
- Jesus said if your eye causes you to sin, pluck it out (Matthew 5:29-30)
- Even understood figuratively, this dramatic language doesn't fit well with Aristotle's emphasis on balance and moderation
- Aristotle's virtue ethics emphasises finding the middle path between excess and deficiency
- Some of Jesus' demands seem more absolute and uncompromising
Fletcher's Situation Ethics and virtue
There are superficial similarities between Situation Ethics and Virtue Ethics:
- Both are relativist approaches
- Both governed by an overriding principle: agape love (Situation Ethics) and virtue (Virtue Ethics)
- However, Situation Ethics would permit any action producing the most love, including adultery, theft or murder
- This fundamentally conflicts with both Aristotle's and Jesus' teaching that such actions can never be virtuous
Understanding relativism in Virtue Ethics
It is important to clarify what relativism means in Virtue Ethics:
- Modern relativism usually refers to cultural and historical differences
- Aristotle believed virtues are known through reason and are therefore universal qualities
- Courage, generosity, self-control and truthfulness do not change over time
- They are relative only in how they are expressed by individuals in particular situations
- The quality of truthfulness remains constant, though what counts as truthful behaviour may vary by circumstance
Key Points to Remember:
When comparing virtue ethics with Christianity, distinguish between different Christian approaches. Natural Moral Law incorporates virtue ethics extensively, whilst Divine Command Theory focuses more on obedience. Always explain both similarities and differences clearly.
The nature of Christian ethics: deontological, teleological, consequential or character-based?
Christian ethics cannot be simply categorised as one type. Different Christian ethical theories emphasise different aspects.
Natural Moral Law (Aquinas)
Teleological elements
The primary precepts are fundamentally teleological, not deontological rules. They are concerned with humanity's final end (telos), which has three focuses:
- Earthly telos: happiness and human flourishing in this life
- Ultimate telos: the beatific vision of God in the next life
- Individual telos: each person has a unique purpose based on their natural abilities
Deontological elements
- Secondary precepts, derived from primary precepts, function as deontological rules
- These are specific moral guidelines about particular actions
- They provide clear duties that must be followed
Character-based elements
- Aquinas emphasises both cardinal and theological virtues
- Character development is essential to moral life
- The virtues enable people to fulfil their purpose and achieve their telos
Situation Ethics (Fletcher)
Consequentialist nature
- Judges actions by their consequences
- Aims to achieve the most agape love in each situation
- The end (most loving outcome) determines the rightness of the means
Teleological aspects
- Some Christians following Situation Ethics have a teleological aim of heaven
- Others seek to create a loving Christian kingdom on earth
- The ultimate goal influences how love is expressed and pursued
Deontological elements
- Suggests a duty to love, though Fletcher rejects rigid legalism
- The principle of agape can be seen as a duty, though applied flexibly
Divine Command Theory
Deontological character
- All biblical rules must be obeyed
- Morality consists of following God's commands
- Right and wrong are determined by what God decrees
Teleological dimension
- The ultimate goal of obeying God's commands is reaching heaven
- Obedience has an eternal reward
- Heaven represents the final purpose of moral living
Understanding the classification
Christian ethics resists simple categorisation because:
- Most Christian ethical systems combine elements of different approaches
- The teleological goal of union with God influences all Christian ethics
- Different denominations and traditions emphasise different aspects
- Individual Christians may draw on multiple approaches depending on the situation
Key Points to Remember:
When answering questions about whether Christian ethics is deontological, teleological or character-based, avoid giving a simple yes or no answer. Instead, explain how different Christian ethical theories contain elements of each approach. Use specific examples from Natural Moral Law, Situation Ethics, and Divine Command Theory to support your analysis.
Christian responses to specific ethical issues
Christian ethics addresses a wide range of contemporary moral questions. Understanding requires familiarity with how different Christian ethical theories approach these issues.
Human life and death issues
Christian responses draw upon:
- The Sanctity of Life principle in both strong and weak forms
- Natural Moral Law perspectives
- Situation Ethics approaches
- Biblical teaching and church tradition
Animal life and death issues
Christian perspectives consider:
- Concepts of Dominion and Stewardship
- The relationship between humans and the rest of creation
- Natural Moral Law views on animal status
- Virtue Ethics perspectives, particularly through Aquinas who drew on Aristotle
- Alternative views such as those of Peter Singer (secular) and Andrew Linzey (Christian)
Key considerations in animal ethics
Christian approaches to animals must address several practical issues:
- Use of animals as food
- Animals in scientific procedures and cloning
- Blood sports
- Animals as sources of organs for transplants
Challenges to Christian views
- Modern ethical studies question traditional Christian assumptions about animal rights
- Secular philosophers like Singer challenge human exceptionalism
- Christian thinkers like Linzey argue for stronger animal rights from within Christian tradition
Theft and lying
Christian ethics generally prohibits both:
- Deontological approaches see these as violations of divine commands
- Situation Ethics might permit these if they produce the most love
- Virtue ethics sees them as incompatible with virtuous character
- Some debate exists about situations where lying might be justified (e.g., protecting innocent life)
Marriage and divorce
Christian views vary:
- Traditional teaching emphasises marriage as a lifelong covenant
- Different denominations have different positions on divorce
- Biblical texts provide various perspectives
- Contemporary social changes challenge traditional views
Homosexuality and transgender issues
This remains a contentious area:
- Traditional interpretations of biblical texts condemn homosexual practice
- Progressive Christians argue for inclusion and acceptance
- Different denominations hold widely varying positions
- Questions about gender identity and transgender issues are relatively new to Christian ethical discussion
Genetic engineering
Christians must consider:
- Stewardship responsibilities
- Playing God concerns
- Potential benefits for healing and preventing disease
- Risks of misuse and unintended consequences
- The sanctity of life and what it means to be human
Wealth and possessions
Christian responses to materialistic values:
- Biblical teaching often criticises excessive wealth
- Jesus' example of simple living
- Tension between prosperity and spiritual devotion
- Stewardship of resources
- Responsibility to help the poor
Tolerance and freedom of religious expression
Christians must balance:
- Their own right to religious freedom
- Respect for other faiths and beliefs
- Issues around religious pluralism
- Tensions between religious convictions and secular values
- Migration and multiculturalism
Key Points to Remember:
When discussing Christian responses to specific issues, always explain which Christian ethical approach you are using (Natural Moral Law, Situation Ethics, Divine Command Theory, etc.). Show awareness that Christians may hold different views on the same issue depending on their theological tradition and ethical approach.
Free will, moral responsibility and conscience
Christian understandings of free will and moral responsibility
Free will is central to Christian ethics:
- Humans are created with the ability to make genuine moral choices
- This freedom brings moral responsibility
- Without free will, there could be no moral praise or blame
- The relationship between divine sovereignty and human freedom is debated
Different Christian perspectives
Christians hold various views on the relationship between divine sovereignty and human freedom:
- Some emphasise God's sovereignty and predestination
- Others stress human freedom and responsibility
- Most Christian thought attempts to hold both in tension
Implications for moral responsibility
- Humans are accountable for their actions
- Moral responsibility requires the ability to have chosen differently
- Sin is possible because humans can freely choose evil
- Salvation involves free acceptance of God's grace
The value of conscience in Christian moral decision-making
Conscience plays a vital role in Christian ethics.
Understanding conscience
- The capacity to discern right from wrong
- An inner voice guiding moral decisions
- Can be informed by reason, scripture, tradition and experience
- Requires formation and education
Different views of conscience
- Aquinas saw conscience as reason making moral judgements
- Some Protestants emphasise the Holy Spirit's guidance through conscience
- Modern psychology offers alternative explanations
The authority of conscience
The role and limits of conscience in Christian ethics:
- Christians must follow their conscience
- However, conscience can be mistaken or poorly formed
- There is debate about whether an erroneous conscience excuses wrongdoing
- Conscience must be informed by Christian teaching and values
The impact of other ethical perspectives on Christian views
Challenges to and support for Christian views
Important principle
Not all ethical perspectives challenge Christianity. Some support Christian views, even from secular positions.
Types of challenges
- Philosophical: questioning the logical coherence of Christian ethics
- Scientific: challenging factual assumptions underlying Christian teaching
- Cultural: contemporary values conflicting with traditional Christian positions
- Practical: difficulties in applying Christian principles to complex modern situations
Types of support
- Natural law theorists may support Christian views on human nature and purpose
- Some virtue ethicists align with Christian character ethics
- Utilitarian concerns for wellbeing can overlap with Christian compassion
- Even secular thinkers may reach similar conclusions through different reasoning
Compatibility of Christian views with other ethical perspectives
With Virtue Ethics
- Strong compatibility through Aquinas' synthesis
- Shared emphasis on character development
- Common focus on human flourishing
- Agreement on some absolute prohibitions
With Kantian ethics
- Shared emphasis on duty and moral law
- Similar views on human dignity and worth
- Compatible ideas about intention mattering more than consequences
- Parallel concepts of ultimate reward for virtue
With Utilitarianism
- Shared concern for human wellbeing and happiness
- Both teleological in orientation
- Both value compassion and concern for others
- Major differences in how consequences are evaluated and over the afterlife
Relative strengths and weaknesses
Strengths of Christian perspectives
- Provides clear moral guidance grounded in divine authority
- Offers ultimate meaning and purpose
- Emphasises both rules and character
- Addresses spiritual as well as moral dimensions
- Strong tradition and accumulated wisdom
Weaknesses of Christian perspectives
- Requires acceptance of religious claims
- May seem outdated on some contemporary issues
- Different denominations disagree on important matters
- Potential conflict between divine commands and human autonomy
- Difficulty applying ancient texts to modern situations
Strengths of secular ethical perspectives
- Based on reason accessible to all
- Can adapt more easily to new situations
- Do not require religious belief
- May seem more relevant to contemporary life
Weaknesses of secular ethical perspectives
- May lack ultimate grounding for morality
- Can struggle to provide meaning and purpose
- May reduce morality to preferences or consequences
- Often lack the depth of tradition and community
Implications of criticisms for Christian authority
Questions raised by criticism
Criticisms of Christian ethics raise fundamental questions about religious authority:
- If Christian ethical teaching is flawed, what does this mean for Christianity as a whole?
- Are the sources of Christian authority (Bible, tradition, church teaching) reliable?
- Can Christianity adapt to new moral understanding whilst remaining true to its core?
Examples of criticisms and their implications
Natural Moral Law criticisms:
- If Natural Moral Law seems out of touch with modern medical ethics, does this undermine Catholic moral authority?
- Does resistance to change suggest stubbornness rather than faithfulness?
- Or does consistency demonstrate integrity and truth?
Situation Ethics criticisms:
- If Situation Ethics is too vague about how people ought to behave, does this make Christianity morally relativist?
- Does this undermine the authority of biblical commands?
- Or does it demonstrate mature moral reasoning?
Divine Command Theory criticisms:
- If taking a literal view of biblical moral authority seems problematic, what is the alternative?
- Does this require abandoning biblical authority altogether?
- Or can the Bible be authoritative without being literal?
How Christians respond
- Some argue that criticisms reveal misunderstandings rather than genuine flaws
- Others see criticism as an opportunity for development and refinement
- Many Christians distinguish between core truths and culturally-conditioned applications
- The diversity of Christian responses shows both the challenge and the vitality of Christian ethics
Key Points to Remember:
When evaluating the impact of other ethical perspectives, avoid treating all criticisms as equally serious or all support as equally significant. Distinguish between fundamental challenges and minor disagreements. Consider how Christians have responded to criticisms throughout history and continue to do so today.
Remember!
Core Concepts:
- Christian ethics combines elements of deontological, teleological and character-based approaches, with different Christian theories emphasising different aspects.
Key Principles:
- Key Christian moral principles include the Sanctity of Life, Dominion and Stewardship, the cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance) and theological virtues (faith, hope, love).
Compatibility with Other Approaches:
- Christianity shows significant compatibility with Aristotelian virtue ethics (especially through Aquinas), some compatibility with Kantian deontology (particularly regarding the summum bonum) and Bentham's utilitarianism (though they differ on the afterlife).
Varied Responses:
- Christian responses to ethical issues vary depending on which Christian ethical approach is adopted (Natural Moral Law, Situation Ethics, Divine Command Theory), and different denominations may hold different views.
Critical Engagement:
- Other ethical perspectives both challenge and support Christian views, and criticisms of Christian ethics raise important questions about religious authority and the ability of Christianity to address contemporary moral issues.