Good Conduct (AQA A-Level Religious Studies): Revision Notes
Good conduct
Introduction
Good conduct is central to Christian life, but Christians disagree about what it means and why it matters.
At the heart of this debate are three key questions:
- Are Christians justified (counted as righteous before God) through faith alone?
- Are Christians justified through good works?
- Does God predestine who will be saved?
Understanding these different viewpoints helps explain why Christians approach moral conduct in different ways.
Foundation of Christian morality
Christian thinking about morality is rooted in beliefs about God's nature. Most Christians accept that God is omnipotent (all-powerful) and omniscient (all-knowing), making God the source of moral law and the controller of all things.
However, this shared foundation leads to different ethical approaches:
Divine command theory (many Protestant Christians): Actions are morally good only if God commands them. Morality comes directly from God's will as revealed in Scripture.
Natural moral law (Catholic tradition): Following Aquinas, this approach teaches that natural law is part of God's eternal law that humans can understand through reason. Morality is accessible through rational reflection on human nature and purpose.
Situation ethics (Joseph Fletcher): This focuses on one principle - agape (Jesus' self-giving love) - and applies it situationally to each unique circumstance.
Process theology (some modern Christians): Ethics must consider reality as an undivided whole, including the environment. This departs from narrower biblical approaches and emphasises human freedom and responsibility.
Why good conduct matters to Christians
Christians agree that good conduct is important, though they offer different reasons:
Reward and punishment: Many Christians believe good conduct earns a place in heaven and avoids hell. This provides a clear motivation for moral behaviour.
Following Jesus' example: Faith in Jesus provides the basis for good conduct. Christians try to follow Jesus' teaching and behaviour. Paul urged the Ephesians to abandon deceitful practices, speak truth, work honestly, avoid evil talk, and show kindness and forgiveness to one another.
Glorifying God: Jesus taught in the Sermon on the Mount: "Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works and give glory to your Father who is in heaven" (Matthew 5:16). Good conduct therefore honours God.
Loving God and neighbour: Jesus identified two great commandments - to love God with all one's heart, soul and mind, and to love your neighbour as yourself (Matthew 22:35-40). Good conduct flows from these two principles.
Disagreements about good conduct
Not all Christians agree on what constitutes good conduct:
Biblical commands seen as immoral: Some biblical instructions are viewed differently today. For example, Paul's letter to Titus advises slaves to be submissive to their masters, which appears to condone slavery. Modern Christians often reject this teaching.
Interpretation of Jesus' commands: Jesus' instruction to "turn the other cheek" (Matthew 5:39) is interpreted by some as requiring pacifism, while others find this impractical and immoral because it fails to defend the innocent.
Divorce: Jesus ruled that divorcing one's wife for any reason other than marital infidelity, then marrying another, constitutes adultery (Matthew 19:9). Christian churches differ in their interpretation of this principle.
Motivation for good conduct: Some Christians insist that good conduct should be done for its own sake, not for reward or to avoid punishment. Unitarian Christians, for example, emphasise free will and reason in making moral choices.
Heaven and hell as psychological realities: Some liberal Christians see heaven and hell as present psychological states rather than future destinations. They believe good moral conduct creates God's Kingdom here on earth.
Justification by faith
Key term: Justification means being counted as righteous before God.
The apostle Paul developed the doctrine of justification by faith, particularly in his Letter to the Romans. His argument unfolds as follows:
No one is justified by following the law: Paul argues that no human being can be justified by works of the law (following Jewish religious law), because all humans have sinned through original sin and fallen short of God's glory (Romans 3:23).
Justification comes through grace: To be counted as righteous by God can only be a free gift through God's grace. This gift is given through the redemption offered by Jesus, whose death atones for human sin (Romans 3:24-25).
Faith is the channel: People are justified by faith, not by works (Romans 3:28). Justification comes through believing in Jesus Christ, not through human achievement or effort.
Worked Example: Abraham's Justification
Paul uses Abraham to demonstrate this principle:
Step 1: Abraham lived long before Jesus, yet could still be justified by God through his faith.
Step 2: When God tested Abraham by commanding him to sacrifice Isaac, Abraham's obedience demonstrated his faith.
Step 3: Paul states: "his faith is reckoned as righteousness" (Romans 4:5).
This shows that justification comes through faith, not through following laws or performing works.
Peace with God: When Christians have complete faith in God and rely on God's grace rather than their own works, they have "peace with God" - reconciliation with God and confidence in their final destiny (Romans 5:1-2).
As scholar C.K. Barrett explains: "Justification is the verdict which faith, and only faith, can hear. Outside faith, as outside grace, people can hear only the verdict of guilty and the sentence of condemnation."
Martin Luther and sola fide
Martin Luther (1483-1546), the German reformer, championed the doctrine of sola fide (justification by faith alone). Luther based his teaching on Romans 1:16-17, which declares that "the righteousness of God is revealed through faith for faith."
Luther's key points:
- God pardons guilty sinners based on their faith alone, without reference to their works
- Faith is passive, not active - justification is not brought about by human achievement but by what God accomplishes through Jesus Christ
- The righteousness of Christ is attributed by God to the believing sinner
- Righteous works are the result of being justified and born again through the Holy Spirit, not the cause of justification
Luther considered this doctrine so important that rejecting it meant preaching a false gospel. He linked it with four other fundamental doctrines:
- Sola scriptura (by Scripture alone)
- Sola gratia (by grace alone)
- Solus Christus (Christ alone)
- Soli Deo gloria (to the glory of God alone)
Together, these emphasise that salvation comes through Christ alone and his work of atonement.
Exam tip: Be able to explain the difference between justification as a passive reception of God's grace versus an active human achievement. This distinction is crucial to understanding Luther's position.
Justification by works
The Letter of James presents a different perspective that appears to contradict Paul's emphasis on faith alone.
James argues:
Faith without works is dead: What is the point of claiming faith if it produces no action? If someone claims to love a brother or sister who lacks food or clothing but does nothing to help them, that faith is useless (James 2:14-17).
Faith is demonstrated by works: James challenges his readers to show their faith apart from works - he will show his faith by his works (James 2:18).
Even demons believe: Believing in God's existence is not enough, because even demons believe in God - and shudder. Faith that does not produce works is barren (James 2:19-20).
Abraham justified by works: James uses Abraham as an example, but reaches a different conclusion from Paul. Abraham had faith, but he showed it through works - by being willing to sacrifice Isaac. James states: "a man is justified by works and not by faith alone" (James 2:24).
Body and spirit analogy: Just as a body without spirit is dead, faith without works is dead (James 2:26).
Three perspectives on the faith-works debate
Christians have developed three main responses to this apparent conflict:
1. Those who prioritise works
Some Christians emphasise that the Letter of James is explicit: "faith apart from works is dead."
Worked Example: The Parable of the Sheep and the Goats
The Parable of the Sheep and the Goats (Matthew 25:31-46) strongly supports this view:
The context: Jesus describes the final judgement where nations are separated like sheep from goats.
The key observations:
- God makes no mention of whether people have faith
- The sheep are admitted to eternal life solely because of their good works: feeding the hungry, giving drink to the thirsty, welcoming strangers, clothing the naked, visiting the sick and imprisoned
- The goats are condemned for failing to do these works
The conclusion: This parable suggests that works, not faith declarations, determine eternal destiny.
Many Christians across all denominations accept this parable as clear evidence that works matter. Moreover, in the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus emphasises the need to keep all the commandments and to teach them (Matthew 5:17-20).
2. Those who prioritise faith
Many Christians follow Paul's teaching, particularly as it appears in Ephesians 2:8-10: "For by grace you have been saved through faith; and this is not your own doing, it is the gift of God - not because of works, lest any man should boast."
This perspective emphasises that:
- Salvation is God's gift, not something earned
- Faith is the channel through which grace flows
- Works are important but follow from justification rather than causing it
3. Those who emphasise both faith and works
The Catholic Church, particularly following the Council of Trent (1545-1563), teaches that justification requires both faith and good works.
The Catholic position:
- Grace comes through baptism, which is the sacrament of faith
- After baptism, faith develops within the Church community
- This leads to new life in Christ, which produces good works
- Belief must involve obedience and good works, not just intellectual acceptance
- As 1 John 2:3-6 states: "by this we may be sure that we know him, if we keep his commandments"
The Catholic Church views James 2:14-26 as comparing two kinds of faith: faith that leads to good works and faith that does not. The kind of faith demons possess - mere belief in God's existence - does not lead to good works. Such faith is dead.
Historical division: This difference in understanding caused significant conflict. Catholics accused Protestants of preaching an "antinomian" (lawless) gospel that minimised the importance of following Jesus' teaching. Protestants accused Catholics of preaching salvation by works, as though one could work their way to heaven without God's grace.
Exam tip: When discussing this debate, show awareness that it is not simply about whether works matter, but about the relationship between faith and works - which comes first and which causes the other.
Predestination
Key term: Predestination is the view that all events have been willed by God from eternity, specifically the fate of the righteous and the damned.
Predestination adds another dimension to the debate about good conduct. If God has already decided who will enter the Kingdom of Heaven, what role does human moral conduct play?
Biblical basis for predestination
Old Testament: There was a general belief that Yahweh was the God of history, particularly in the "election" of Israel as a chosen nation (Deuteronomy 7:6-8).
New Testament: Paul develops the doctrine more explicitly in Romans 8:28-30: "For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son... And those whom he predestined he also called; and those whom he called he also justified; and those whom he justified he also glorified."
This suggests that:
- God predestines some people to lead Christ-like lives
- Those who are called are thereby justified
- This implies God predestines some people to good moral conduct - not through their own choice but by God's will
Who is predestined?
Different interpretations exist:
- Some argue Paul taught that all Christians are justified, excluding members of other religions and unbelievers
- Others suggest Paul believed in universal salvation, though this seems unlikely given Romans 6:23: "the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord"
- Perhaps those not predestined to eternal life simply die without entering God's Kingdom
Historical development: Augustine and Pelagius
The debate about predestination centres on how to reconcile God's sovereignty with human free will.
Pelagius (c.357-418) rejected predestination:
- Everything God created was good, so God could not have created humanity in original sin
- Grace is simply God's gift of free will to humans
- The human will needs no help from God in choosing between good and evil
- Predestination is moral nonsense
- Humans are fully responsible for their own moral conduct
Augustine disagreed with Pelagius:
- Holiness is the result of election by God, not its source
- God's foreknowledge means He infallibly knows who will be saved
- Augustine developed double predestination: God (1) predestines some to God's Kingdom through grace, but (2) leaves others in their sin to be condemned to hell through both their choice and their works
John Calvin's doctrine
During the Protestant Reformation, John Calvin (1509-1564) developed the most uncompromising form of predestination:
"By predestination we mean the eternal decree of God, by which he determined with himself whatever he wished to happen with regard to every person. All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation."
Martin Luther also revived Augustine's doctrine, stressing humanity's total depravity after the Fall. Since all humans are guilty before God through Adam's sin, all deserve eternal damnation. If some are saved, this demonstrates God's infinite love rather than injustice.
Philosophical problems with predestination
The doctrine of predestination raises several serious difficulties:
The problem of omniscience: If God is all-knowing, He must have known before creating the universe who would go to heaven and who would go to hell. Why would God create beings destined for hell?
The problem of love: If God is love (as emphasised in Trinitarian theology), can infinite love be reconciled with condemning anyone to eternal punishment?
The problem of free will: If humans are created in God's image with the ability to make moral choices, how can this be reconciled with predestination? True moral goodness requires freely choosing the good, not being forced through fear of punishment.
The foreknowledge paradox: If God knows you will make choice X at time Y, can you avoid making that choice? If not, do you have genuine free will? If God's knowledge causes your choices, they are not really choices at all.
Proposed solution - timeless God: Some theologians suggest God exists beyond space-time, seeing the entire history of the universe simultaneously, like an unrolled scroll. God would timelessly see the results of our free choices without causing them.
Universal predestination (John Hick): If God is a God of love, eternal damnation cannot exist. After many lifetimes, every human will freely come to acknowledge God, since God's loving persuasion has infinite patience. However, this raises questions: if God is certain of success, do humans truly have freedom to reject God? What value does the Atonement have if everyone reaches God's Kingdom regardless of their actions?
Process theology: Some modern theologians argue that God and the universe evolve together in time. The future is unknown and cannot be predestined because it has not yet happened. This view emphasises human freedom and responsibility.
Contemporary Christian approaches
Today's Protestant and Catholic churches have varied approaches to predestination. After almost 2,000 years of debate, no version of the doctrine has achieved universal Christian acceptance. The debate continues because predestination seems to be a logical consequence of believing in an omniscient God, yet it conflicts with beliefs about human freedom and God's loving nature.
Exam tip: When discussing predestination, demonstrate understanding of the tension between divine sovereignty and human freedom. Show awareness that this theological problem remains unresolved and that different Christian traditions offer different solutions.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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Good conduct is important to Christians, but they disagree about what it is and why it matters. Different theological approaches (Divine Command Theory, Natural Moral Law, Situation Ethics) lead to different understandings of Christian morality.
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Justification by faith (Paul and Luther) teaches that Christians are counted as righteous before God through faith in Jesus alone, not through works. This is summarised in Luther's doctrine of sola fide - faith alone. Good works are the result of justification, not the cause.
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Justification by works (Letter of James) argues that faith without works is dead. Even demons believe in God, but faith must produce action. The Parable of the Sheep and the Goats emphasises that the final judgement is based on good works.
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The Catholic position holds that justification requires both faith and works. Grace comes through baptism and leads to good works through living in Christ. Without a positive response to grace through works, salvation is not possible.
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Predestination is the belief that God has determined from eternity who will be saved and who will be damned. This doctrine flows from belief in God's omniscience but creates serious philosophical problems regarding human free will, God's love and the value of moral conduct.
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The unresolved tension: Christianity continues to wrestle with reconciling divine sovereignty with human freedom, and with balancing faith and works as the basis for salvation. Understanding these different perspectives helps explain the diversity of Christian approaches to moral conduct.