Religious Change, 1527-63? (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Religious Change, 1527-63?
Introduction to Tudor religious changes
The Tudor period witnessed dramatic shifts in England's religious identity. Unlike the European Reformation, which often arose from popular movements, religious change in England was driven from above – particularly by the personal preferences and political needs of the Tudor monarchs.
Tudor rulers followed the principle of cuius regio eius religio (whose realm, his religion), meaning the religious beliefs of the monarch should determine those of their subjects. This approach served as a crucial method of political and social control in a country without a police force or standing army. Religious views that differed from the monarch's were typically seen as a threat to authority.
Key Terminology
Understanding these terms is essential for grasping the religious changes of this period:
- Doctrine: The set of religious beliefs held by the Church
- Liturgy: The order of worship in church, usually set out in written form
- Annulment: A declaration that a marriage was never legally valid (unlike divorce, which ends a valid marriage). Children of an annulled marriage become illegitimate
- Royal Supremacy: The monarch's position as head of the Church of England, replacing the pope's authority
Why did the break with Rome happen?
The break with Rome – which ended the pope's authority over the Church in England – was primarily driven by Henry VIII's desperate need for a male heir, not by theological disagreement.
Henry's 'Great Matter'
Henry VIII actually held orthodox Catholic beliefs. In 1521, he had written a book called Assertio Septem Sacramentorum (Defence of the Seven Sacraments) attacking Martin Luther's Protestant ideas. The pope rewarded Henry with the title Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith) for this support.
However, Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon had produced only one surviving daughter, Mary, and no male heir. By the 1520s:
- Catherine was past childbearing age
- Henry had fathered an illegitimate son (Henry Fitzroy) with his mistress Elizabeth Blount, proving he could have sons
- Henry had become infatuated with Anne Boleyn, who refused to become his mistress
- By 1527, Henry was determined to end his marriage to Catherine
Biblical Justification for Annulment
Henry convinced himself that his marriage had never been valid in the first place. He used a passage from the Old Testament book Leviticus, arguing that because Catherine had previously been married to his elder brother Arthur, the marriage was unlawful. This would allow him to seek a papal annulment (declaring the marriage had never been valid) rather than a divorce.
Why the annulment failed (1527-29)
Cardinal Wolsey was given responsibility for managing the king's 'Great Matter' in 1527. However, a combination of circumstances prevented Henry from obtaining his annulment:
Catherine's resistance: Catherine was prepared to fight the annulment proceedings because:
- She believed her marriage was valid
- She feared for her daughter Mary's status (Mary would become illegitimate if the marriage was annulled)
- She had powerful allies at court and abroad
Charles V's influence: Catherine's nephew, Charles V, was the Holy Roman Emperor and had been dominant in European politics since defeating France at the Battle of Pavia (1525). In May 1527, Charles' troops attacked Rome itself in the Sack of Rome, leaving Pope Clement VII directly under Charles' control. The pope was therefore very unlikely to grant an annulment that would upset both Catherine and Charles.
Papal delaying tactics: In 1528, Clement sent his legate (representative), Cardinal Campeggio, to England to hear the case with Wolsey. However, Campeggio had secret instructions to delay proceedings. He held up the trial by adjourning it in 1529.
By 1529, these problems meant Wolsey's attempts had been frustrated. He fell from power, but Henry still had not achieved his annulment. The eventual solution would be to break with Rome entirely and reject papal authority – a far more radical outcome than Henry had initially intended.
The end of papal power in England under Henry VIII
By 1534, Henry VIII had created the Royal Supremacy, denying the pope's authority over the Church in England and claiming this right for himself. This outcome was not inevitable but emerged as a solution to Henry's marriage problem, brought about through the advice of key figures who had Protestant sympathies: Thomas Cromwell, Thomas Cranmer, and Anne Boleyn herself.
Development of the theory of Royal Supremacy
Imperial kingship theory: Henry became very interested in his own powers as king, fuelled by his need to end his marriage to Catherine. He commissioned leading scholars, including Thomas Cranmer, to research an intellectual justification for his annulment.
This research led to Cranmer's publication of the Collectanea satis copiosa (1530), which:
- Used English chroniclers dating back to the Anglo-Saxon period
- Argued that the kings of England were not subject to papal power
- Henry himself read and annotated this work thoroughly
Meanwhile, other scholars toured European universities looking for legal and theological arguments to support Henry's case. These were presented to parliament in 1531.
The outcome was the development of 'imperial' kingship – the idea that English kings had no superior except God. This meant:
- The king was the ultimate source of power in the kingdom
- Any attempt to appeal to foreign powers (like the pope) was illegal
- The king could justifiably claim supremacy over the Church
Erastian Kingship
This approach was influenced by the ideas of Swiss theologian Thomas Erastus, arguing that the ruler of the state should also control the Church. This concept of Erastian kingship provided theological justification for the monarch's authority over religious matters.
Legislative changes establishing Royal Supremacy
These theoretical ideas were enacted through a series of parliamentary Acts that fundamentally transformed England's relationship with Rome:
Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533):
- Declared that England was an 'empire' subject to no foreign power
- Made it illegal to appeal to the pope on religious matters
- Allowed Cranmer to rule on Henry's marriage without papal interference
Act of Supremacy (1534):
- Declared that the king was "the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England"
- The wording made it clear that parliament was not granting this power to the king but confirming that the monarch had always held it
- This prevented parliament claiming it could later remove this power
Treason Act (1534):
- Made it treason to deny the Royal Supremacy
- This meant death for anyone who refused to accept Henry as head of the Church
How the Acts Worked Together
The legislation of 1533-1534 created a comprehensive legal framework:
- The Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533) cut England off from papal jurisdiction, preventing Catherine from appealing to Rome
- This allowed Cranmer to annul Henry's marriage without papal interference
- The Act of Supremacy (1534) formally confirmed the king's position as head of the Church
- The Treason Act (1534) enforced this new settlement with the threat of execution
Together, these Acts transformed England from a Catholic nation under papal authority to an independent Church under royal control.
Attacking papal authority (1530-33)
With Cromwell's help, Henry used anti-clerical criticism (criticism of clergy privileges and abuses) to pressure the English clergy and weaken papal power:
Praemunire charge (1530-31):
- The entire English clergy were charged with praemunire (acknowledging a foreign power's authority over England – in this case, the pope)
- They were fined £100,000
- In 1531, Convocation (the assembly of archbishops and bishops) was forced to recognise Henry as 'Supreme Head of the Church of England'
- However, they added the qualifying phrase "as far as the law of Christ allows"
Supplication against the Ordinaries (1532):
- Cromwell drew up this parliamentary 'petition' to Henry
- It complained about clergy abusing their power (such as holding multiple positions simultaneously)
- It asked Henry to act to control the Church
- This led to the Submission of the Clergy (1532), where Convocation agreed to Henry's demands
- Thomas More resigned as Lord Chancellor in protest
Appointment of Cranmer (1532-33):
- When William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury, died in late 1532, Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer
- By this time, Anne Boleyn was pregnant
- Desperate for a legitimate male heir, Henry increased the speed of change
- Henry and Anne married in secret in January 1533
The annulment (1533):
- In April 1533, Cranmer led Convocation in discussions about the validity of Henry's first marriage and papal authority
- Unsurprisingly, they supported the king
- Cranmer annulled Henry's marriage to Catherine
- Elizabeth Tudor was born in September 1534
Timeline of key events (1518-1536)
This timeline shows the progression from Henry's initial marriage problems to the full establishment of Royal Supremacy – a process that took nearly two decades to complete.
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1518 | Catherine of Aragon's last pregnancy |
| 1519 | Birth of Henry Fitzroy, Henry's illegitimate son |
| c1525 | Henry becomes infatuated with Anne Boleyn |
| 1527 | Secret annulment proceedings begun by Wolsey but thwarted by the Sack of Rome |
| 1528-29 | Annulment trial held before Wolsey and Cardinal Campeggio; Campeggio delayed proceedings by adjourning the trial |
| 1529 | Fall of Wolsey; first session of Reformation Parliament; Publication of Simon Fish's 'A Supplication for the Beggars' |
| 1530 | Publication of the Collectanea Satis Copiosa; entire English clergy charged with praemunire |
| 1531 | Convocation agrees to Royal Supremacy "as far as the law of Christ allows" |
| 1532 | Cromwell produces the Supplication against the Ordinaries; Convocation agrees to Henry's demands in the Submission of the Clergy; Thomas More resigns in protest |
| 1533 | Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn (January); Cranmer appointed Archbishop of Canterbury; Act in Restraint of Appeals passed; Henry's marriage to Catherine annulled by Cranmer; Birth of Elizabeth Tudor |
| 1534 | Act of Supremacy; Treason Act |
| 1535 | Execution of Thomas More; Cromwell orders the Valor Ecclesiasticus and visitations by commissioners; Execution of Mary Barton, the Holy Maid of Kent; Cromwell appointed Vicegerent in Spirituals |
| 1536 | Execution of Anne Boleyn; Henry marries Jane Seymour; Act for the Dissolution of the Smaller Monasteries; The Pilgrimage of Grace |
Key Points to Remember:
- The break with Rome was primarily caused by Henry VIII's need for a male heir, not theological disagreement with Catholic doctrine
- Henry's attempt to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon failed (1527-29) because Pope Clement VII was under the control of Charles V, Catherine's nephew
- The theory of imperial kingship provided intellectual justification for the Royal Supremacy, arguing that English kings had no superior except God
- Key advisers with Protestant sympathies – Cromwell, Cranmer, and Anne Boleyn – helped Henry develop the break with Rome
- The Royal Supremacy was established through parliamentary legislation (Act in Restraint of Appeals 1533, Act of Supremacy 1534), not just royal decree
- The break with Rome was a political solution to a dynastic problem, though it had profound religious consequences for England