The General Pardon (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The General Pardon
Background to the pardon
By late 1692, the Salem witch trials had reached their peak. Governor William Phips had initially supported the trials and even encouraged Cotton Mather to write Wonders of the Invisible World, a detailed account defending the proceedings. However, by 1693, the political and social climate had shifted dramatically. Growing criticism of the trials, particularly concerning the use of spectral evidence (testimony about visions or apparitions of the accused), forced Phips to reconsider his position.
Spectral Evidence Controversy
Spectral evidence referred to testimony about visions or apparitions of the accused allegedly tormenting victims. This type of evidence became highly controversial because it relied entirely on the victim's claims about invisible supernatural phenomena that no one else could verify or witness.
The use of spectral evidence had been highly controversial from the start. Critics, including prominent religious figures like Increase Mather, questioned whether the Devil could use the shape of an innocent person to torment victims. This theological debate became central to the collapse of the witch-hunt.
Phips issues the general pardon (1693)
In 1693, Governor Phips issued a general pardon, officially excusing eight individuals whom William Stoughton had condemned to death in the latest round of trials. This marked a turning point in the Salem witch-hunt and signalled the beginning of the end of the prosecutions.
The new Superior Court of Judicature (January 1693)
A new court was established in Salem in January 1693, called the Superior Court of Judicature. William Stoughton was again appointed to lead this court. However, the circumstances had changed considerably:
- Stoughton personally had not altered his views on witches or the validity of spectral evidence
- Political pressure on him to avoid convictions had become immense
- Governor Phips directly ordered Stoughton to discount spectral evidence in trials
- Without spectral evidence, prosecutors found it nearly impossible to secure convictions
Trial outcomes through 1693
The trials held under the new court produced dramatically different results compared to earlier proceedings:
First trials (January 1693):
- The first five prisoners tried had been held since the initial wave of accusations
- All five were found not guilty
- Charges were dismissed against several other prisoners
- Three defendants were found guilty, but Phips pardoned them shortly after Stoughton signed their death warrants
Second session (late January 1693):
- Five more people were tried and found not guilty
Final session (May 1693):
- Five individuals faced trial: Susannah Post, Mary Bridges, Eunice Frye, William Barker and Mary Barker
- All five were found not guilty
The Impact of Removing Spectral Evidence
This sudden wave of acquittals was almost certainly directed, or at least heavily influenced, by Governor Phips. The governor had effectively ended the witch-hunt by removing the key piece of evidence - spectral testimony - that had secured previous convictions. Without it, prosecutors could not prove their cases.
Phips's criticism of Stoughton
Governor Phips became particularly critical of William Stoughton's role in the trials. In February 1693, Phips wrote a letter to King William III in which he:
- Criticised Stoughton for allowing the witch craze to develop so extensively
- Defended his own actions by claiming he only established the court under pressure from leading religious figures in Boston
- Attempted to distance himself from responsibility for the trials
This letter reveals the political tensions between Phips and Stoughton. Historians have debated whether Phips was genuinely concerned about injustice or primarily motivated by political self-preservation. Many argue that Phips should have intervened earlier, given his authority as governor.
The aftermath and official recognition of injustice
The end of the Salem trials was followed by a gradual process of official recognition that terrible injustices had occurred.
1695: Repeal of witchcraft prosecution law
In 1695, the government in London took decisive action by repealing a law that the Massachusetts legislature had passed in 1692. This earlier law had enabled swift prosecutions for witchcraft. Its repeal made it clear that the colonial government in England disapproved of how the trials had been conducted.
1697: Samuel Sewall's public apology
In January 1697, one of the judges involved in the trials, Samuel Sewall, took the extraordinary step of officially apologising. He:
- Addressed Massachusetts officials publicly
- Acknowledged his errors in the trials
- Asked for forgiveness for his role in the convictions
The Significance of Sewall's Apology
Sewall's apology was significant because it represented the first public admission of wrongdoing by someone in authority. His willingness to accept responsibility stood in stark contrast to William Stoughton's refusal to acknowledge any mistakes.
Apologies by the accusers
Over time, many of the young women who had acted as chief accusers during the trials began to apologise. As they grew older and matured, they:
- Gradually acknowledged the harm they had caused
- Recognised the error of their accusations
- Expressed remorse for their role in the deaths of innocent people
These apologies came slowly and were not universal, but they contributed to the broader recognition that the trials had been fundamentally flawed.
1711: Compensation for victims' families
In 1711, the Massachusetts government paid compensation to the families of those who had been executed or imprisoned during the witch-hunt. This financial restitution, while it could not undo the harm done, represented official acknowledgement of the injustice suffered by the victims and their families.
William Stoughton: A key figure
William Stoughton (1631-1701) played a central role in the Salem witch trials, and his legacy remains controversial.
Stoughton's background and career
William Stoughton was a native of Massachusetts who received an excellent education:
- Studied at Harvard College
- Continued his studies in England
- Was a committed Puritan like most others involved in the trials
- Served in the Massachusetts government for many years
- Even participated in Sir Edmund Andros's unpopular administration
Governor Phips appointed Stoughton to two powerful positions:
- Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts
- Chief Justice of the colonial courts (a role he retained until his death)
Stoughton's extensive powers during the trials
Concentration of Power
Stoughton's dual roles gave him unprecedented authority during the Salem trials. He could act as both:
- Judge - presiding over trials and determining legal procedures
- Prosecutor - actively pursuing convictions
This concentration of power in one individual was highly problematic and contributed to the injustices of the trials.
Stoughton's unwavering belief in spectral evidence
Unlike many other magistrates and important figures such as Increase Mather, who grew increasingly suspicious of spectral evidence, Stoughton remained absolutely convinced of its usefulness throughout the trials and afterwards.
His determination to accept spectral evidence, even when others questioned it, led to numerous convictions that would not have been possible under stricter evidentiary standards.
Stoughton's refusal to apologise
Unlike Samuel Sewall and some other officials involved in the trials, Stoughton refused to admit to any mistakes. This unwillingness to acknowledge wrongdoing damaged his historical reputation considerably.
Later career and death
After the trials ended:
- Stoughton became acting governor of Massachusetts Bay in 1694
- Continued to hold various official positions
- Died in 1701 without ever expressing regret for his role in the witch-hunt
Historical interpretations of responsibility
Historians have debated where responsibility for the Salem witch trials truly lies:
The traditional view: Stoughton as zealot
William Stoughton is often remembered in popular history as an unforgiving religious zealot who stopped at nothing to secure convictions. This interpretation emphasises:
- His enthusiasm for prosecutions
- His belief in spectral evidence
- His refusal to apologise or admit error
The revisionist view: Phips's responsibility
Many modern historians have argued that Governor Phips should bear more blame for the extent of the trials. This interpretation emphasises that:
- Phips had the authority to stop the trials much earlier
- He allowed Stoughton to act with minimal interference for months
- His eventual intervention came only after significant political pressure
- His letter to King William was largely self-serving
Complexity of Historical Responsibility
This debate illustrates how historical responsibility is often complex, with multiple individuals sharing blame for tragic events. Rather than identifying a single villain, historians must consider the actions and motivations of all key figures involved.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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In 1693, Governor Phips issued a general pardon, ending the Salem witch trials by ordering courts to discount spectral evidence, leading to widespread acquittals.
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The aftermath saw gradual recognition of injustice: Samuel Sewall apologised in 1697, accusers later expressed remorse, and compensation was paid to victims' families in 1711.
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William Stoughton remained unrepentant throughout his life, refusing to acknowledge any mistakes despite being chief justice during the trials.
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Historical debate centres on responsibility: whilst Stoughton is often portrayed as a zealot, many historians argue Governor Phips bears greater responsibility for allowing the trials to continue so long.
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The trials ended not because of a sudden change in belief, but because political pressure forced authorities to reject spectral evidence, making convictions impossible.