Francis Bacon and the Empirical Scientific Approach (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Francis Bacon and the Empirical Scientific Approach
Introduction to Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon (1561–1626) stands as one of the most important contributors to scientific discovery, despite never carrying out a scientific experiment himself. While Isaac Newton became prominent towards the end of the 17th century, Bacon was active much earlier and laid the philosophical foundations for modern scientific method.
Born into a well-connected family in London in 1561, Bacon demonstrated exceptional intellectual ability from an early age. He enrolled at Trinity College, Cambridge at just 12 years old, where he lived with his older brother for three years. After Cambridge, he trained in law and qualified as a barrister in 1582. His career in public service flourished when he became an MP in 1584, eventually rising to become a member of the Privy Council and Lord Chancellor under James I in 1618.
However, his political career ended in scandal when he was charged with corruption in public office in 1621 and fined. Despite this setback, Bacon continued his philosophical work until his death from pneumonia in 1626.
According to John Aubrey's account, Bacon caught pneumonia whilst conducting an experiment to test whether snow could preserve meat – stuffing a fowl with snow during cold weather. This story, whether entirely accurate or not, symbolises Bacon's absolute commitment to experimental inquiry.
Throughout his life, Bacon wrote extensively on law, philosophy, and religion, producing works that would transform how future generations approached scientific investigation.
The experimental method
Bacon revolutionised scientific thinking by promoting what we now call the empirical scientific approach. He wanted to pursue the 'experimental and the rational' – concepts that seem normal to modern scientists but were not part of the vocabulary of pre-17th-century thinkers. At the time, scientific thinking was heavily influenced by the beliefs of the Church, which restricted scientific advancement for centuries.
Bacon's method contained several key elements that set it apart from earlier approaches:
Accumulation of data: Bacon believed that scientific discovery is best aided by accumulating as much data about the subject as possible. Rather than starting with grand theories, he argued scientists should first gather comprehensive observations.
Rejection of preconceived theories: His method involved rejecting any preconceived theories or conclusions about the subject matter. This was a radical departure from the practice of beginning with assumed truths and then seeking evidence to support them.
Methodical observation: He thought that the methodical and meticulous observation of facts was the best way to understand natural phenomena. Scientists should let theories emerge from evidence, not force evidence to fit existing theories.
In his work Novum Organum (1620), Bacon explained his approach: "I propose to establish progressive stages of certainty. The evidence of the sense, helped and guarded by a certain process of correction, I retain. But the mental operation which follows the act of sense I for the most part reject; and instead of it I open and lay out a new and certain path for the mind to proceed in, starting directly from the simple sensuous perception."
Inductive versus deductive reasoning
Central to understanding Bacon's contribution is grasping the distinction between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning occurs when a conclusion is made based on something already known or assumed. If deductive reasoning is being followed, a rule that applies to one instance would also apply to other instances. For example, the assumption that because gravity is a force on all things on Earth, an object falling to the ground must be falling because of gravity. Aristotle is known as the founding father of deductive reasoning. This approach starts with general principles and applies them to specific cases.
Inductive reasoning is reasoning based on evidence. The inductive approach allows for an original hypothesis to be proved false. Rather than starting with assumed principles, it builds theories from observed facts. This was Bacon's preferred method.
Bacon's Animal Analogy: Three Approaches to Knowledge
Bacon used a memorable analogy to distinguish different approaches to knowledge. He compared three types of thinkers to three different creatures:
- The ant represents pure experimentalists who "only collect and use" – they gather facts but make no broader sense of them
- The spider represents pure rationalists who "make cobwebs out of their own substance" – they spin theories without grounding them in observation
- The bee represents Bacon's ideal approach, taking "a middle course, it gathers its material from the flowers of the garden and of the field, but transforms and digests it by a power of its own"
This bee analogy captured Bacon's vision perfectly: gather evidence from the natural world, but then use the mind's power to process and understand that evidence. As he wrote, "from a closer and purer league between these two faculties, the experimental and the rational (such as has never yet been made) much may be hoped."
The importance of inductive reasoning
Bacon believed that preconceived theories could mislead scientists and philosophers. To avoid this trap, he developed a systematic approach carried out through the production of Tables of Instances, where all the information about a subject could be recorded. Once all the facts about the subject were recorded in the table, a theory would then emerge from the evidence rather than being imposed upon it.
Bacon's Investigation into Heat
One practical example Bacon supplied was his investigation into the generation of heat. Once all of the facts known about the generation of heat had been recorded in the Table of Instances, Bacon concluded that heat is a form of motion.
This theory fits relatively well with modern theories of kinetics, where heat is produced as particles increase in motion. This demonstrates how Bacon's method could lead to genuine scientific insights.
The impact of Bacon's inductive approach extended far beyond the natural sciences. While Bacon applied his empirical thinking to the study of nature, others adopted his ideas when they attempted to gain a greater understanding of religion.
Lord Falkland (1610–43) opened his house and estate at Great Tew in Oxfordshire to learned thinkers, where they used the rational method to question problems facing the Church of England, such as the agreed date for the end of the world.
Falkland's group reached the conclusion that the Church would benefit from religious toleration. Their rational interpretation of the Bible showed that it contains many contradictions that will inevitably be interpreted in different ways by different people. Because of this, no single denomination has the right to dictate the way people worship. This idea became popular during the Civil War (1642–46) and in the years that followed.
The rational method also spread to be used in the study of society, philosophy, and eventually history.
Bacon and magic
Despite being hugely influential in scientific circles, Bacon's method actually served to preserve a belief in magic and the occult. This paradox reveals the complex nature of the transition from medieval to modern scientific thinking.
When Bacon rejected deductive reasoning in favour of inductive reasoning, he was actually reverting to the sort of logic used by those who studied natural magic, whose conclusions came largely from observations in nature. By setting down all observed facts about an object of study in Tables of Instances, Bacon was dismissing the distinction between magical and rational qualities that many scientists were starting to make.
His method allowed for unexplained or supernatural physical phenomena to exist as long as they were observed as part of the scientific process. In other words, if a seemingly magical occurrence could be observed and recorded, Bacon's method would include it as valid data. This meant that whilst promoting scientific rigour, his approach didn't necessarily exclude supernatural explanations – it simply required that they be based on observation rather than assumption.
This aspect of Bacon's thinking shows how the Scientific Revolution was not a clean break from earlier beliefs, but rather a gradual and sometimes contradictory transformation in how people understood the natural world.
The influence of Bacon's works
Bacon produced several major works that promoted his scientific method and had lasting influence:
The Advancement of Learning (1605): His first major work of philosophy was Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human (1605), usually referred to as The Advancement of Learning. Here he argued that empirical knowledge, learnt from experience and observation, is the most superior form of knowledge. He made a striking statement about the relationship between certainty and doubt: if men begin with certainties, they end with doubts, but if they begin with doubts and observe known facts, they will end with certainties. This encapsulated his belief that questioning and evidence should come before conclusion.
Novum Organum (1620): Bacon intended to produce a six-volume work called Instauratio Magna (Great Restoration), although much was never completed. The second part, known as Novum Organum (The New Instrument) became the most influential and was released in 1620. Here, Bacon succinctly argued for his experimental method, and although it contained no new scientific discoveries, it became an important guidebook for the men who founded the Royal Society later in the century.
The title page of Instauratio Magna (1620) contained powerful symbolism. It depicted a ship sailing past Gibraltar, between the mythical Pillars of Hercules, which represented the limits of exploration and learning in the age of Aristotle. The ship was shown sailing out of the Mediterranean and onwards to the great expanse of the Atlantic Ocean.
This image perfectly captured Bacon's vision of breaking through old limitations and exploring new territories of knowledge.
The New Atlantis (1626): In this work, Bacon described a utopian (idealised, perfect) state where scientific knowledge is exploited and valued. It presented his vision of how society could be organised around the pursuit and application of scientific knowledge.
The foundation of Gresham College and the Royal Society
Bacon's ideas were not widely implemented before 1640, but with the change in social attitudes that came about as a result of the Civil War, his work was revisited and emulated by others. Perhaps the best evidence of Bacon's influence is in the founding of the Royal Society nearly 40 years after his death.
The journey towards the Royal Society began with the establishment of Gresham College in London in 1597 by Thomas Gresham. This institution provided a venue for scientific lectures and discussions. In 1645, what became known as the 'invisible college' began to meet – a group of natural philosophers and physicians who gathered to discuss the new experimental philosophy.
The Royal Society was formally founded in 1660 and received a royal charter from Charles II in 1662. Regular mentions of Bacon's guiding genius were cited at early meetings, demonstrating his continuing influence on scientific thought. The Society became the institutional embodiment of Bacon's vision for collaborative scientific investigation.
After his death in 1626, other scientists attempted to emulate his Baconian Method and the empirical nature of his work was developed by philosophers such as John Locke. The Royal Society went on to achieve remarkable advances:
- In 1663, John Aubrey investigated the Neolithic stone circles at Avebury, effectively founding modern archaeology
- In 1665, the Society founded the world's first professional scientific journal, providing a means for sharing experimental findings
- In 1677, the field of microbiology was born when members of the Society observed micro-organisms under a microscope
- In 1687, Newton's Principia Mathematica was published, revolutionising understanding of physics and mathematics
- In 1703, Newton was elected president, cementing the Society's status as the leading scientific institution
The Royal Society represented the institutionalisation of Bacon's experimental method and his vision that scientific knowledge should be shared, tested, and built upon collectively.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Francis Bacon (1561–1626) revolutionised scientific thinking by promoting the empirical method based on observation and evidence-gathering rather than preconceived theories
- His approach emphasised inductive reasoning (building theories from observed facts) over deductive reasoning (applying assumed principles to specific cases)
- Bacon's Tables of Instances required scientists to record all observable data about a subject before drawing conclusions, ensuring theories emerged from evidence
- Despite promoting scientific rigour, Bacon's method paradoxically preserved belief in magic by allowing supernatural phenomena to be included if they were observed
- His major works, particularly Novum Organum (1620), became the philosophical foundation for the Royal Society (founded 1660), which institutionalised collaborative scientific investigation
- Bacon's influence extended beyond natural science to religion, society, and philosophy, promoting the rational examination of all areas of knowledge