Introduction (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes

Introduction

Overview of geographical transformation (1850-2009)

Between 1850 and 2009, the geographical distribution of black Americans and the nature of civil rights issues underwent dramatic transformation. Understanding this geographical shift is essential for grasping how civil rights challenges evolved from a primarily Southern issue to a nationwide phenomenon.

Origins of slavery in America

Black Americans first arrived in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, brought as slaves from the West African coast. By the 18th century, tens of thousands of black Africans had been forcibly transported across the Atlantic through the transatlantic slave trade. These enslaved people were sold to white Americans and put to work as domestic servants and agricultural labourers on large farms called plantations, which cultivated cash crops including tobacco, cotton and sugar cane.

The geographical concentration in 1850

By the mid-19th century, the geographical distribution of black Americans stretched across the southern United States, from Virginia in the east to Texas in the west. In 1850, the centre of black America was firmly located in the south-east of the USA—the Old South—where the vast majority of black Americans lived under the brutal system of slavery.

Life under slavery

Slave owners provided housing but also imposed their own forms of justice and punishment. Some enslaved people attempted to resist their conditions. Occasionally, individuals fled their plantations, risking severe punishment if caught. Others took part in organised rebellions. The most notable example from this period was the Nat Turner slave rebellion in Virginia in 1831, which was quickly and violently suppressed through military force.

Free black Americans in the North

Not all black Americans in 1850 were enslaved. Small numbers lived in the northern states as freemen—people who had never been enslaved or who had gained their freedom. However, even though these individuals theoretically enjoyed civil rights like white Americans, they still faced severe racial discrimination in their daily lives.

The real-life story of Solomon Northup illustrates this danger. A free black American, Northup was kidnapped and sold into slavery in Louisiana in 1841, where he remained for twelve years before regaining his freedom. His experience demonstrates that even legal freedom did not guarantee safety or equality for black Americans in the mid-19th century.

Political tensions over slavery

By 1861, American politics was deeply divided over the issue of black slavery and civil rights. Just over half of US states were free states, meaning they had abolished slavery within their borders. The remaining states, concentrated in the South, maintained slavery as they considered it essential to the region's economic prosperity, particularly for the plantation economy.

This fundamental disagreement between free and slave states created increasing political tension. The conflict reached breaking point in 1861 when Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated as president. Lincoln opposed the westward expansion of slavery into new territories. In response, most slave-owning states made the drastic decision to secede (leave) the USA to form their own independent country, the Confederate States of America.

During the war, President Lincoln strategically made the abolition of slavery a northern war aim through the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, which declared freedom for slaves in Confederate-controlled territories. Shortly before the war's end, in January 1865, slavery was formally abolished throughout the United States.

Post-abolition migration begins

The abolition of slavery in 1865 created new possibilities for black Americans from the Old South. For the first time, they were legally free to migrate north and west in search of better economic opportunities and to escape the racial discrimination that remained endemic in the South. This migration began slowly after 1865 but would eventually transform into a mass movement.

Timeline of key events

• 1850 - United States divided between free and slave states; majority of black Americans are slaves concentrated in the Old South
• 1861-1865 - American Civil War fought between Union and Confederate states
• 1863 - Emancipation Proclamation declares freedom for slaves under Confederate control
• 1865 - Slavery abolished; slow migration of black Americans north and west begins
• 1877 - End of Reconstruction period; beginning of legal segregation in the Old South
• 1905 - Beginning of mass migration of black Americans to Harlem, New York City
• 1910 onwards - The Great Migration accelerates, with hundreds of thousands moving north
• 1915-1945 - Peak period of the Great Migration
• 1919 - Red Summer and Chicago race riot demonstrate racial tensions in northern cities
• 1921 - Tulsa race riot
• 1920s - Harlem Renaissance cultural movement
• 1941-1945 - Second World War increases black migration north and west
• 1945 onwards - Growth of suburbia leads to creation of racially divided housing areas across the USA
• 1950s - Civil rights movement launches campaign against legal segregation
• 1960s onwards - Migration back to the Old South begins
• 1965 - Watts race riot in Los Angeles
• 1967 - Newark race riot and publication of Kerner Report
• 1970s - Desegregation of Old South completed
• 1992 - Rodney King riots in Los Angeles
• 2008 - Barack Obama elected as first black American president

Key terms explained

Civil rights

Civil rights refer to the fundamental rights of individuals to political and social freedom and equality. For black Americans, the struggle for civil rights meant fighting for the same legal protections, voting rights, educational opportunities and social freedoms enjoyed by white Americans.

Black Americans (terminology)

The terminology used to describe the black population of the United States has evolved significantly over time, reflecting changing social attitudes and self-identification:

• 1850 to early 20th century: The term "coloured" was commonly used
• Early 20th century to 1960s: The term "negro" became standard (the NAACP, founded in 1909, used "Colored People" in its name)
• 1970 onwards: The term "black American" came into widespread use
• Recent decades: "African American" has become increasingly common

Slavery

Slavery was a condition of involuntary servitude in which black Africans and their descendants were brought to America from 1607 onwards. Until abolition in 1865, enslaved black Americans were legally treated as the property of their white owners, without any rights whatsoever. Even those black Americans who were free in northern states suffered racial discrimination because of their ethnic background and were frequently treated as second-class citizens.

Old South

The Old South refers to the region of the USA that comprised the Confederate States of America—the states that seceded from the USA in 1861 to defend slavery, thereby triggering the Civil War. These states included:

• Mississippi
• Louisiana
• Alabama
• Georgia
• North Carolina
• South Carolina
• Virginia
• Florida
• Tennessee
• Arkansas
• East Texas (areas with extensive slavery)

Confederate States of America

The Confederate States of America was an independent country created as a result of the American Civil War. It comprised 11 states that were formerly part of the USA: Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas, Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida and Georgia.

Four slave states did not officially join the Confederacy: Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland and Delaware. However, volunteers from these states did join the Confederate army, and Missouri was divided throughout the war between federal and Confederate control.

Segregation

Segregation refers to the separation of black and white people in the USA across multiple areas of life, including education, housing, recreational facilities, transportation and the armed forces.

Two distinct forms of segregation existed:

Legal (de jure) segregation: In some states, primarily in the Old South, segregation was enforced by law. State and local governments passed legislation requiring separate facilities for black and white citizens, covering everything from schools to water fountains.

Informal (de facto) segregation: In other parts of the USA, particularly in northern and western states, racial discrimination occurred informally rather than through official laws. This was especially evident in housing patterns, where black Americans were effectively excluded from certain neighbourhoods through discriminatory practices by landlords, estate agents and banks, rather than through explicit laws.