Second World War: Migration North and West, 1941-45 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Second World War: Migration North and West, 1941-45
Introduction
The Second World War brought about dramatic changes to American society, transforming not only the economy but also the geographic distribution of the black American population. Between 1941 and 1945, unprecedented economic growth created new opportunities that prompted millions of black Americans to relocate, continuing the Great Migration of previous decades whilst also establishing new patterns of westward movement.
Economic transformation and job opportunities
The wartime economy created the conditions for large-scale black migration through massive economic expansion and job creation. Understanding these economic changes is essential to explaining why so many black Americans relocated during this period.
Economic growth
The United States experienced extraordinary economic growth during the war years. The gross national product (the total value of goods and services produced) more than doubled from $99.7 billion in 1940 to $211 billion by 1945. This doubling of national income, wealth and industrial production created an economic boom that would have significant implications for black Americans seeking employment.
The economic transformation during WWII was unprecedented in American history. The nation's total economic output literally doubled in just five years, creating opportunities that had been unimaginable during the Great Depression. This explosive growth would fundamentally reshape the American labor market and create the conditions for massive population movements.
The employment revolution
When Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) became president in 1933, the country faced severe economic depression with 12.8 million people unemployed, representing 25 per cent of the entire workforce. Despite six years of the New Deal (Roosevelt's programme of economic reforms), unemployment in 1940 still stood at 8.1 million workers, or 14.6 per cent of the workforce.
The war changed this situation dramatically. By placing the economy on a war footing (organizing all economic activity to support the war effort), Roosevelt achieved what the New Deal alone could not. By 1945, unemployment had plummeted to just one million people, a mere 1.9 per cent of the workforce. This transformation resulted from two key factors:
- Nearly 12 million men were conscripted into the armed forces, removing them from the civilian labour market
- The war effort created 17 million new jobs in industries such as aircraft production and shipbuilding
The economic transformation during WWII accomplished what years of New Deal policies could not: it virtually eliminated unemployment. The combination of military conscription and war industry expansion reduced joblessness from 25% in 1933 to just 1.9% in 1945. This dramatic shift created unprecedented opportunities for black Americans to escape the limited prospects of the rural South.
Rising wages
Not only were more jobs available, but workers also earned more. Average wages rose by 30 per cent during the war years, making employment in war industries particularly attractive. This combination of abundant job opportunities and higher wages provided powerful economic incentives for black Americans to relocate from the South, where opportunities remained limited and wages lower.
Migration patterns during the Second World War
The Second World War prompted one of the largest movements of people in American history, with black Americans participating in migration on an unprecedented scale.
Scale of movement
Approximately 15 million black and white Americans moved permanently during the war years. This massive population shift occurred because millions joined the military and relocated to bases away from home, whilst millions more civilian workers moved to take up jobs in war industries. However, the most significant changes were permanent relocations driven by economic opportunity.
Continuation of the Great Migration
Black Americans continued the Great Migration that had begun in the 1920s and 1930s, moving north from the Old South (the traditional slave-holding states). Around 700,000 black Americans left the Old South during 1941-45, with many following the established routes to major northern cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia and New York. These cities had already developed significant black communities during earlier waves of migration, making them familiar destinations.
The new westward trend
A significant new pattern emerged during the Second World War: large-scale migration to the Pacific Coast. This westward movement represented a major shift in black migration patterns and was driven by the concentration of war industries in western states, particularly California. Aircraft production and shipbuilding facilities on the West Coast required enormous workforces, creating opportunities for black workers willing to relocate.
The Los Angeles area alone attracted approximately 120,000 black Americans during the war years. This represented a new geographic pattern, as black migration had previously focused almost exclusively on northern industrial cities.
The westward migration to the Pacific Coast marked a fundamental shift in African American settlement patterns. While the Great Migration of the 1920s and 1930s had focused on northern industrial cities like Chicago and Detroit, WWII created an entirely new destination: California. The concentration of aircraft manufacturing and shipbuilding on the West Coast drew black workers in unprecedented numbers, permanently altering the demographic landscape of American cities.
Impact and consequences
The rapid influx of black migrants into northern and western cities created both opportunities and challenges, fundamentally altering race relations in receiving communities.
Housing market tensions
One of the most serious consequences of wartime migration was intense competition for housing. Cities receiving large numbers of both black and white migrants struggled to accommodate the influx, leading to housing market tensions. Black migrants often faced discrimination in housing, being restricted to certain neighbourhoods whilst competing for limited accommodation. This created friction between black and white residents and contributed to broader racial tensions.
Housing Discrimination and Competition
Housing market tensions represented one of the most visible and volatile consequences of wartime migration. Black migrants frequently encountered:
- Restrictive covenants preventing them from purchasing homes in certain areas
- Landlords refusing to rent to black families
- Overcrowded conditions in the limited neighbourhoods open to black residents
- Competition with white migrants for scarce housing resources
These tensions would sometimes erupt into violence and contributed to the race riots that occurred in cities like Detroit and Los Angeles during the war years.
Case study: San Francisco
The experience of San Francisco, analyzed by historian Albert Broussard in his 1993 study Black San Francisco, illustrates the complex racial dynamics in cities receiving black migrants.
Case Study: San Francisco's Experience with Wartime Migration
Migration numbers and challenge: San Francisco absorbed 27,000 black migrants between 1941 and 1945, alongside an even larger influx of white migrants. This represented an enormous demographic shift for a city that had fewer than 5,000 black residents in 1940. The rapid transformation created significant challenges for both newcomers and established residents.
Racial tensions and tolerance: San Francisco demonstrated what Broussard describes as a duality of tolerance and ambivalence. Unlike Los Angeles or Detroit, where serious race riots erupted during the war, San Francisco maintained relative peace. However, this did not mean an absence of racial conflict. The two races came into contact more frequently than ever before in housing, employment, recreation and public accommodations, creating both opportunities for integration and sources of friction.
White reactions: Some white residents were visibly disturbed by the growing black presence and showed disdain for black newcomers. The adjustment proved difficult for longtime residents, both white and black, who had to adapt to tens of thousands of new black residents. The process was often fraught with racial antipathy (strong dislike based on race) and bitterness.
Optimism and uncertainty: Despite the challenges, some welcomed the black migration as the dawning of a new era in San Francisco's race relations. The city had been renowned for its racial toleration, and this reputation persisted despite tensions. However, this combination of tolerance and ambivalence made the adjustment of wartime black migrants unpredictable and uncertain. Outcomes varied significantly depending on individual circumstances and neighborhoods.
Significance for civil rights
The wartime migration had important long-term implications for the civil rights movement. By relocating to northern and western cities, black Americans moved to areas where they could vote more freely and organize politically. This geographic shift would prove crucial for the civil rights struggles of the 1950s and 1960s. Additionally, the experience of contributing to the war effort whilst facing continued discrimination at home raised expectations for change and fueled demands for civil rights.
Key Points to Remember:
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The Second World War transformed the American economy, with gross national product doubling and unemployment falling from 25% (1933) to just 1.9% (1945), creating unprecedented opportunities for black workers.
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Approximately 700,000 black Americans left the Old South during 1941-45, continuing the Great Migration to northern cities whilst also establishing a new pattern of westward migration to Pacific Coast war industries.
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The Los Angeles area attracted around 120,000 black Americans, representing a major shift toward western destinations driven by aircraft production and shipbuilding industries.
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Rapid migration created housing market tensions in receiving cities, with competition for limited accommodation and discrimination contributing to racial friction.
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San Francisco's experience demonstrated a complex duality of tolerance and ambivalence, with the city avoiding major riots but experiencing significant racial tensions as it absorbed 27,000 black migrants into a community that had numbered fewer than 5,000 black residents in 1940.
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The geographic redistribution of black Americans to northern and western cities, where they could vote and organize more freely, laid crucial groundwork for the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s.