Context (OCR A-Level English Literature): Revision Notes
Context
Understanding the context of A Doll's House is essential for analysing how Henrik Ibsen's play reflects and challenges the social, literary and historical circumstances of its time. When discussing context in your essays, remember that it should inform your interpretation of the text rather than dominate it. Assessment Objective 3 (AO3) requires you to demonstrate understanding of the significance and influence of the contexts in which literary texts are written and received. Context is worth 50% of the marks in Section 2, making it the dominant assessment objective in your comparative essay.
The key is to avoid simply reproducing prepared contextual material. Instead, use context to shed light on specific aspects of the play that are relevant to your exam question. The contextual factors you explore should be carefully selected based on the thematic or literary focus of the question you're answering.
Literary context
When examining the literary context of A Doll's House, it's important to understand how the play fits within particular dramatic movements and what it achieves through its form and genre. Ibsen's work can be understood as both realist and naturalist drama, and exploring these literary contexts helps us appreciate how revolutionary the play was for its time.
Realism in A Doll's House
Henrik Ibsen is widely regarded as the father of modern realism, and A Doll's House exemplifies many key features of realist drama. Realist plays focus primarily on the psychological turmoil of characters rather than external action. In A Doll's House, the plot centres on the internal lives of the characters and the motivations driving their behaviour. We see this particularly in Nora's psychological struggle as she grapples with the consequences of her forgery and the reality of her marriage.
Unlike traditional dramatic forms that emphasise plot and spectacle, realist drama is dialogue-driven. The interactions between characters reveal their inner worlds and relationships. In A Doll's House, the action is deliberately minimal. The play takes place over the Christmas holiday period, with visitors arriving at the Helmers' house. The only significant external event is a party, which notably occurs off-stage. This structure forces audiences to focus on the conversations and exchanges between characters rather than on dramatic action.
Realist protagonists typically defy social convention in some way, and Nora's decision to leave her marriage in the play's resolution is a striking example of this. She rejects the traditional expectations of wives and mothers, choosing instead to pursue self-discovery and independence. This defiance of social norms was shocking to contemporary audiences and demonstrates Ibsen's commitment to realistic portrayals of social conflict.
The play also explores the tension between individual weaknesses and societal injustice, another hallmark of realist drama. Nora's dilemma is vividly presented through her paranoid mutterings, her frantic tarantella dance and her half-formed thoughts of suicide. Ibsen makes it clear that her despair stems not just from personal failings but from the patriarchal limitations and hypocrisies of bourgeoisie society. The play invites audiences to question whether Nora is truly at fault or whether she is a victim of unjust social systems.
Realist drama gained popularity in the 19th century partly because it depicted ordinary lives rather than the exaggerated heroes of earlier dramatic traditions like Greek tragedy. The Helmers exemplify a middle-class family of the period, making them relatable to contemporary audiences. By focusing on average citizens dealing with everyday problems, realist playwrights made theatre more accessible and relevant to broader audiences.
Naturalism in A Doll's House
The play also incorporates elements of naturalism, which can be understood as a heightened form of realism. Naturalist drama is characterised by stage settings and props that reflect ordinary, domestic environments. In contrast to the grand outdoor settings of Greek drama, Ibsen's stage directions call for a comfortable middle-class home. Significantly, all the action takes place in one room, which creates a sense of confinement and oppression. External pressures from the outside world intrude into this domestic space through the arrival of guests like Mrs Linde and Krogstad.
Naturalist plays use prosaic dialogue—everyday speech rather than verse—to represent realistic conversation. Torvald's pet names for Nora, such as "little lark" and "little squirrel", exemplify the vernacular of a traditional Victorian marriage. This ordinary language makes the characters feel authentic and their situations more immediate to audiences.
An important philosophical influence on naturalist drama is determinism, a concept shaped by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Determinism suggests that individuals are products of their environment and circumstances, with limited control over their destinies. Ibsen explores this through his depiction of characters who are shaped by forces beyond their control.
In A Doll's House, characters struggle for survival and security within the constraints imposed by their social and economic environment. The influence of Darwinism is evident in how characters must adapt to survive. Nora's restricted autonomy forces her to be resourceful and adaptable. She secretly takes on work at night to repay her debt, defying her husband's expectations. Other characters like Kristine Linde, Anne Marie and Nils Krogstad similarly depend on resourcefulness and adaptability for their survival. This mirrors Darwin's idea that species survive by adapting to existing conditions.
Naturalism also explores characters struggling to find meaning in a life without religious certainty. When Torvald accuses Nora of having no religion because she ignores her duty, Ibsen raises questions about religious values and duty within social constructs. This reflects the broader intellectual climate of the late 19th century, when scientific discoveries were challenging traditional religious teachings.
Swedish playwright August Strindberg's Miss Julie, written in 1888, provides another example of naturalist drama. Like A Doll's House, it explores Darwinian philosophy by placing characters in conflict within a confined setting (a kitchen). Understanding these literary connections can help you draw meaningful comparisons between texts, especially when considering how different playwrights engaged with similar ideas and dramatic techniques.
Social context
The social context of A Doll's House encompasses the political and intellectual environment in which Ibsen wrote the play, as well as how it has been understood by different audiences over time. Two particularly important aspects of social context for this play are the influence of Darwinism and the emergence of the concept of the "New Woman".
Darwinism and the rise of self
Ibsen sets his play during the Norwegian festival of Yule, a detail rich with symbolic significance. This season marks a turning point—the death of the old year and the birth of a new one. This timing mirrors Nora's transformation, as her new life begins on Boxing Day when she leaves the metaphorical "doll's house" behind. The play ends as she closes the door on her old existence, stepping into an uncertain but self-determined future.
The choice of character names is also significant. Ibsen uses pagan names for his main characters: Torvald and Nora are named after Norse gods, emphasising a connection to older, pre-Christian traditions. However, Kristine's name has associations with Christianity, and her character represents values of humility, honesty and sacrifice. This mixture of pagan and Christian references reflects the complex spiritual landscape of the late 19th century.
A Doll's House engages with contemporary debates about individualism and destiny. The plot revolves around Nora's forgery years before the play begins, allowing Ibsen to explore the notion of fate. Does Nora's past action determine her future? Can she escape its consequences? Her transformation is triggered by two unexpected visits (from Mrs Linde and Dr Rank), suggesting that life-changing moments can arrive without warning.
In 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, which challenged religious teachings about creationism. Darwin's research suggested that species survive by adapting themselves to existing conditions rather than being created in fixed forms by a divine creator. This theory had profound implications beyond biology, influencing social thought and literature.
The influence of Darwinism in A Doll's House is evident in how characters' survival depends on their ability to adapt. Nora, despite her restricted autonomy, finds ways to work secretly and earn money. Mrs Linde has survived as a single woman by being self-reliant and taking whatever work she can find. Even Krogstad's desperation to keep his job reflects the precarious nature of social and economic survival. The play suggests that rigid adherence to social conventions may not be the best strategy for survival—adaptation and change may be necessary.
The New Woman
A Doll's House was written during a period of significant political and social change. Across Europe and the West, movements for political and individual emancipation were gaining momentum. This context gave rise to the concept of the "New Woman", a term first coined in 1894, though the ideas it represented were already circulating when Ibsen wrote his play in 1879.
The term "New Woman" refers to an independent woman who seeks autonomy and often lives outside the traditional constraints of marriage. In this sense, the play became significant as a work that challenged conventional gender roles and sought to empower women. Mrs Linde serves as an example of the New Woman in the play. As a single woman, she has agency over her own security and makes her own decisions. Though her life has been difficult and has left her somewhat bitter, she is self-assured and reasonably autonomous. She chooses to rekindle her relationship with Krogstad not out of desperation but because she wants a meaningful connection and purpose in life.
Ibsen's play is considered an example of modern drama because it challenges traditional institutions and standards. Its controversial depiction of marriage and its exposure of hypocrisies within patriarchal systems focus on ideas that would later be central to feminist thought. The play asks whether women should be confined to roles as wives and mothers or whether they have the right to pursue self-development and independence.
In a European society enriched by industrialisation, single women were offered more opportunities to find work. In Norway, education was made accessible to females in 1876, just three years before Ibsen wrote A Doll's House. This meant that women like Mrs Linde, who had to support themselves financially, became increasingly common. However, it's important to note that women still faced significant restrictions in the labour force. They earned less than men and were typically offered only menial jobs. True equality remained distant.
Bourgeoisie society expected wives to refrain from work, as a woman's employment could be seen as a reflection of her husband's inability to provide. In this context, Nora's secret work is doubly transgressive—not only does she work without her husband's permission, but she also commits forgery to obtain the money for their trip to Italy. She suffers under the secrecy of her unlawful act, unable to take pride in having saved her husband's life.
A husband's social status was enhanced if his wife appeared obedient, subservient and under his control. Torvald Helmer seems to enjoy complaining about the burden Nora places on him, claiming she forgets everything he teaches her and spends all his money. This performance of long-suffering patience actually reinforces his status as a capable patriarch managing a childlike wife.
The play's concern with parenthood is also significant in terms of the New Woman debate. Torvald suggests that children have no place around a man and that childcare is solely the responsibility of mothers. This rigid division of gender roles is challenged by the play's ending, when Nora insists she has duties to herself that are just as important as her duties as a mother. This was a shocking assertion for contemporary audiences, who believed a woman's primary identity should be as a wife and mother.
Historical context
While understanding the historical context in which A Doll's House was written is valuable, it's important to reference historical context judiciously and always link it carefully to the themes in the play and the focus of your exam question. Historical context provides the backdrop against which the play's ideas can be better understood.
Henrik Ibsen was born in Skien, Norway, in 1828. His popularity as a playwright grew steadily, despite—or perhaps because of—the fact that his plays were considered scandalous and inappropriate by many contemporaries. Ibsen wrote A Doll's House at a time when society was dominated by strict Victorian social codes, and his willingness to challenge these codes made him both celebrated and controversial.
Although Norway gained independence from Britain in 1814, much of the Victorian influence on the middle class remained strong throughout the 19th century. Victorian values emphasised respectability, propriety and the maintenance of appearances. The importance of a flawless appearance is exemplified in the play through Nora's preoccupation with ensuring the house is perfect for her husband. She fusses over decorations, tries to hide her macaroons and presents a cheerful façade even when deeply troubled.
The title "A Doll's House" itself alludes to Victorian family roles: children who are seen but not heard, an obedient and cheerful wife, and a responsible and capable husband. Just as dolls in a dollhouse can be arranged and controlled, Nora feels manipulated and positioned by others. The metaphor suggests that the seemingly perfect domestic scene is artificial and restrictive rather than genuinely nurturing.
Most of Europe at this time applied the Napoleonic Code, which prevented women from engaging in financial transactions without male permission or oversight. This legal restriction is central to the play's plot—Nora's forgery of her father's signature was necessary because, as a woman, she couldn't legally borrow money herself. Many women chose not to marry because of these restrictive laws, and there was a growing suffrage movement demanding political and legal rights for women.
The rise of industry created a socially mobile European society, where individuals could improve their economic status through work and advancement. Torvald and Nora's relief when he receives his promotion to bank manager, and their belief that this will provide them with safety and security, illustrates the economic pressures faced by the emerging middle class. Torvald is particularly concerned with ensuring he never accrues any debt, as he believes this is immoral and disgraceful. For the bourgeoisie, maintaining respectability and financial stability were paramount concerns.
In an increasingly capitalist society, the bourgeoisie found that their new wealth brought new anxieties. They had to maintain their social position, meet expectations and avoid scandal. Torvald's horror when he learns about Nora's forgery stems partly from genuine moral concern but also from fear of how the scandal could damage his reputation and career. The play exposes how economic and social pressures shape behaviour and values, sometimes in destructive ways.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Context should inform but never dominate your reading of A Doll's House. Always link contextual points to specific aspects of the text and the exam question.
- Ibsen is considered the father of modern realism. A Doll's House is both a realist and naturalist drama, focusing on psychological turmoil and ordinary domestic life.
- Darwinism influenced the play's exploration of adaptation and survival. Characters must be resourceful and flexible to survive in their social and economic environment.
- The concept of the "New Woman" is central to understanding the play's challenge to traditional gender roles. Mrs Linde represents an independent woman, while Nora's journey moves her towards this new model of femininity.
- Victorian social codes and the Napoleonic Code restricted women's autonomy. Understanding these historical constraints helps explain why Nora's actions were both necessary and transgressive.
- The rise of industrialisation and capitalism created new social pressures for the middle class. The play explores how economic concerns and social status anxieties shape relationships and moral values.