Context (OCR A-Level English Literature): Revision Notes
Context
Oscar Wilde's creation of the play
Oscar Wilde began developing the ideas for An Ideal Husband during the summer of 1893 whilst living in Goring-on-Thames, a village in South Oxfordshire. Interestingly, this location inspired the name of one of the play's main characters, Lord Goring. Wilde worked on the play throughout the year, though by February 1894 he still considered it 'a little incomplete'.
Wilde's creative process often drew inspiration from his immediate surroundings. The connection between the village name and his character demonstrates how he integrated personal experiences into his theatrical works.
The playwright deliberately built upon his earlier theatrical successes, creating connections with his 1893 play A Woman of No Importance, which includes a discussion about what an ideal husband would be like and why such a person couldn't exist. Like his previous works, An Ideal Husband employs conventional Victorian plot devices, such as an old incriminating letter and a stolen piece of jewellery. However, Wilde elevated the play beyond simple comedy by incorporating serious commentary on morality, politics and gender roles, earning it the label of 'social comedy'.
The play's initial reception and performance history
When An Ideal Husband opened on 3 January 1895, audiences responded enthusiastically. The play was so well-received that even the Prince of Wales congratulated Wilde on his achievement. It ran for over 100 performances at the Haymarket Theatre, and another theatre scheduled it for production.
Wilde's arrest for homosexual activities dramatically affected the play's fortunes. The theatre suspended the production, and Wilde was no longer credited as the author. This scandal had profound implications for both Wilde's career and the play's reception in England.
Despite this scandal in England, the play opened in New York in March 1895 with considerably less controversy.
Wilde himself was keenly aware of how critics would respond to his work. He remarked to a friend: 'It was written for ridiculous puppets to play, and the critics will say, "Ah, here is Oscar unlike himself!"—though in reality I became engrossed in writing it, and it contains a great deal of the real Oscar.' George Bernard Shaw praised it as superior to The Importance of Being Earnest. Many reviewers admired the play's witty dialogue, though others criticised its logical flaws, unlikely plot twists or unoriginal storyline.
Some scholars have suggested that audiences might view the Chilterns' need to protect Sir Robert's political secret as parallel to Wilde's own need to conceal his homosexuality. This reading adds a layer of biographical significance to the play's themes of concealment and social respectability.
Though not produced as frequently as The Importance of Being Earnest, An Ideal Husband continues to be staged regularly. The play has been adapted for film multiple times in Russia, Germany, England and the United States, with additional television, radio and audio versions produced over the years.
Literary influences and theatrical conventions
The well-made play structure
Wilde drew upon several theatrical traditions when crafting An Ideal Husband, adapting them to serve his unique satirical purposes. The play follows the structure of the French 'well-made play', a form that relies on careful, intricate plotting to build suspense. This theatrical style resolves all conflicts neatly in a single climactic scene.
Characteristics of the well-made play:
Action in these plays typically revolves around key objects that are central to characters' fates or identities. These physical objects serve as plot devices that Victorian audiences would have found familiar and engaging.
For instance, in The Importance of Being Earnest, Wilde used a lost handbag as a clue to Ernest's true identity. Similarly, in An Ideal Husband, the plot centres on a blackmail letter and a highly recognisable piece of stolen jewellery. Victorian audiences would have been familiar with plays employing such physical objects linked to characters' pasts.
Melodrama traditions
The play also draws upon popular 19th-century melodramas, which featured simplistic characters (virtuous heroines and evil villains) and storylines based on clear-cut moral conflicts where good inevitably triumphs over evil, resulting in a happy ending. Melodramas were deliberately emotional, pulling hard on audience's heartstrings whilst incorporating unlikely plot twists.
Political drama conventions
During this period, numerous English plays focused on men in politics. Works such as Arthur Pinero's 1890 The Cabinet Minister included debates about proper male conduct and explored the nature of male and female social roles. These plays typically featured discussions of male virtue and often portrayed a husband in public office threatened by a past crime or sin, which he conceals from his wife. Conventionally, the sinning public figure would retire from public life.
Wilde's Innovation:
However, Wilde took a fresh approach: Sir Robert considers retirement but ultimately chooses to remain in a more prominent government position. This departure from theatrical convention challenged audience expectations and conventional morality.
Specific literary source
Scholars have noted that Wilde frequently borrowed plots from other sources rather than creating entirely original storylines. He most often drew upon French dramas but also adapted conventions from contemporary Victorian theatre. A specific model for An Ideal Husband appears to be the 1873 American novel The Gilded Age by Mark Twain and C. D. Warner, which similarly revolves around a scheming woman who has invested money and attempts to blackmail a government representative into making her investments profitable.
Victorian gender roles and social expectations
The doctrine of separate spheres
During the Victorian era (1837–1901), British society established rigidly defined roles for men and women. People spoke of men and women inhabiting 'separate spheres', which were clearly delineated with minimal overlap.
The separate spheres ideology:
- Men were expected to receive formal education and work in the public sphere
- Women were not required formal education and focused primarily on the domestic, private sphere
- Society expected women to marry and provide moral guidance within the home, not only to their children but also to their husbands
- Women's main public role involved serving as hostesses for social gatherings
The emergence of the New Woman
The Victorian era spanned a considerable period, and by its end, women actively challenged these gender restrictions. From the mid-19th century onwards, women fought for and gradually achieved greater educational opportunities. London University began admitting women to two of its colleges in 1878. In the 1890s, the 'New Woman' movement emerged, advocating for increased formal education for women and changes to divorce laws. British society engaged in active debate about women's proper role throughout the 1890s.
Period audiences would have recognised Lord Goring's comments in Act 4 about the differences between men's and women's lives as contributing to this ongoing debate. They would also appreciate the originality and humour in Mrs Cheveley arguing in Act 2 that what society really needed was higher education for men.
Gender representation in the play
Wilde presents a spectrum of gender roles throughout An Ideal Husband. The women in the play demonstrate equal articulacy to the men. When Mabel Chiltern and Lord Goring become engaged, they prove perfectly matched, both capable of firing off witty epigrams at rapid speed. Mabel also displays insight and frankness that suggests she can equal, and possibly surpass, Lord Goring's abilities.
The Chilterns' relationship blends conservative and more contemporary elements. Lady Chiltern certainly doesn't hesitate to express her opinions and attends public meetings of the Women's Liberal Association. Sir Robert supports women's education. Yet whilst Sir Robert serves the country in politics, Lady Chiltern provides him with moral guidance at home.
Lady Chiltern's challenge to gender norms:
Lady Chiltern calls upon her husband to be pure, which itself challenges period gender roles: she demands he maintain the same moral standards required of women. This reversal of expectations would have been provocative to Victorian audiences.
As the play progresses, Wilde dramatises the tension between her public 'feminism' and her private acceptance of traditional gender norms. At the play's climax, Lord Goring explicitly endorses the concept of distinct spheres for the two genders, and Lady Chiltern appears to embrace that perspective when she repeats Lord Goring's words to her husband.
Mrs Cheveley as cautionary example:
Mrs Cheveley exemplifies what happens when these gender roles go wrong. Women were supposed to seek good marriages and never openly admit sexual desire, yet Mrs Cheveley seems to violate this when she says she knew Baron Arnheim 'intimately'. Women were not meant to abandon morality completely, as Mrs Cheveley does, to pursue amoral self-interest and sexual pleasure. She unquestionably serves as the villain of An Ideal Husband.
Historical context: the Suez Canal
The play's central crisis occurs when Mrs Cheveley attempts to blackmail Sir Robert Chiltern into supporting the Argentine Canal scheme. She bases her blackmail on information about his involvement in stock speculation related to the Suez Canal. Understanding the Suez Canal's history helps explain the plot's plausibility.
The Suez Canal stretches over 100 miles, connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean. It proved immensely valuable for shipping and military purposes, allowing ships to avoid the entire route around Africa, which was both lengthy and dangerous. Though visionaries had recognised the value of building such a canal since the 15th century, it wasn't constructed until the 19th century, when the French occupied Egypt.
Historical Timeline of the Suez Canal Investment:
French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps persuaded the Egyptian viceroy that the canal was worthwhile. In 1858, Egypt granted the Universal Suez Ship Canal Company the right to build and operate the canal. This was an extremely risky venture. The British government initially opposed the canal's construction and even labelled it criminal to proceed.
Britain refused to invest at first but finally agreed in 1875 only because the Egyptian government desperately needed money. The British government purchased shares at 568 francs, which then rose in value until they were worth over 3,600 francs by 1900.
Why this matters to the plot:
Wilde's contemporary audience would understand both the risk involved in canal construction and the potential for huge financial rewards. They would grasp why Sir Robert was tempted and why Mrs Cheveley would attempt to repeat this type of investment.
Since the British government had initially condemned the Suez Canal as criminal before investing in it, Mrs Cheveley's suggestion that Sir Robert reverse his position is clever because it wouldn't surprise anyone: it would mirror historical precedent.
Wilde's distinctive use of language
Understanding epigrams
An epigram is a brief, witty statement, usually a generalisation about some aspect of life. Its purpose is to surprise, delight and often provoke the audience. Epigrams convey substantial messages in compact form.
Classic Example of an Epigram:
Consider President Kennedy's famous epigram: 'Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.'
The second half startles because it reverses the first, communicating that rather than being passive recipients, listeners should actively participate to help their country.
Short, sharp and eye-opening, epigrams are particularly well-suited for satire. This makes them an excellent tool for Wilde, who uses them to poke fun at society's rigidity or hypocrisy. Wilde's epigrams derive their witty bite from his use of wordplay—playful or clever use of language, similar to puns and other forms of verbal humour. Wordplay allows Wilde to subvert audience expectations by reversing the meanings or logic of words to make satirical points.
Examples of Wildean wit
An Ideal Husband is full of snappy dialogue based on epigrams. Consider this exchange between Mabel Chiltern and Lord Goring in Act 4:
Worked Example: Analysing Wildean Wit
Lord Goring [after some hesitation]. And I'm ... a little over thirty.
Mabel Chiltern. Dear, you look weeks younger than that.
Analysis:
Lord Goring clearly feels self-conscious about revealing his true age to Mabel, the younger woman he wishes to marry. In a conventional conversation, Mabel would respond kindly, telling Lord Goring he doesn't look his age.
When Mabel says 'you look weeks younger than that', it's not comforting but honest and witty. 'Weeks' doesn't significantly alter his age at all. Mabel's remark isn't cruel but candid; she can see exactly how old Lord Goring is, so his attempt to downplay his age fails, creating comedic effect.
Epigrams as social commentary
In other instances, epigrams open windows onto broader, more profound issues. In Act 2, Mrs Cheveley quips:
Worked Example: Epigram as Social Commentary
'Morality is simply the attitude we adopt towards people whom we personally dislike.'
Unpacking the meaning:
'Morality' refers to a code defining what society considers good or bad behaviour. Logically, people should embrace morality to lead ethical, principled lives. However, Mrs Cheveley inverts the conventional meaning by defining morality as a matter of personal convenience.
People 'adopt' moral attitudes not because they want to lead virtuous lives but because doing so provides a convenient opportunity to feel superior and condemn someone they dislike. By reversing the expected meaning of 'morality', Wilde exposes the hypocrisy of those who pretend to be moral whilst being the opposite.
The deeper questions raised:
This epigram simultaneously raises serious questions. If morality is merely an extension of self-interest rather than a virtuous code of ethics or behaviour, it becomes meaningless. Wilde's witty words provoke his audience into pondering the true nature of morality.
- What does it mean to act ethically?
- Are people genuinely motivated by selfishness more than a desire to be good?
- What would a world where morality simply meant self-interest be like?
Wilde's epigrams startle his audience into considering issues from fresh, often unsettling, perspectives.
Aestheticism and decadence movements
Core principles of aestheticism
Wilde belonged to an artistic movement in Europe called aestheticism, which began in the early 19th century but reached full flowering by Wilde's time. It challenged the Industrial Revolution's utilitarian worldview, which prioritised practicality. It also challenged Victorian moral conservatism with a more playful, subversive approach to life.
Key principles of aestheticism:
- Rejected rigid social conventions in favour of flexible attitudes to morality
- Favoured beauty and 'art for art's sake'
- Viewed life itself as a work of art
- Considered pleasure and delight as essential components of existence
The decadence movement
A close relative of aestheticism was decadence, an art movement that flourished in the late 19th century. Decadence reacted against traditional morals of all sorts, including those defining sexuality. It embraced perversity—the resistance to anything considered conventional or morally correct—and considered art and artifice superior to the natural world. A high level of sophistication was paired with a jaded attitude, a sense that the world was in decline, so one might as well enjoy it.
Victorian reaction to these movements:
Victorians were not amused by what they perceived as a rejection of their values. Wilde's sense of humour, which he frequently employed to skewer his time's conventional morality, owes much to aestheticism.
Wilde also incorporates art and artefacts throughout his work as important symbols, and the stage directions in this play explicitly compare main characters to works of art. In An Ideal Husband, a diamond brooch featuring a snake design plays a key role.
One of his characters, Lord Goring, lives an idle life devoted to pleasure and expresses some of the play's most decadent lines, such as his cynical observation: 'To love oneself is the beginning of a lifelong romance.'
Key Points to Remember:
- An Ideal Husband premiered on 3 January 1895 to great acclaim, though Wilde's arrest soon after affected its production history and his authorial credit.
- The play combines the French 'well-made play' structure with melodrama conventions whilst offering serious social commentary, earning it the label 'social comedy'.
- Victorian 'separate spheres' ideology strictly defined men's public roles and women's domestic roles, though the 1890s 'New Woman' movement challenged these restrictions.
- The Suez Canal's history—initially condemned as criminal by Britain before becoming a profitable investment—makes Mrs Cheveley's blackmail plot plausible to contemporary audiences.
- Wilde's epigrams use wordplay to subvert expectations and expose social hypocrisy, conveying profound messages in brief, witty statements.
- Aestheticism and decadence movements influenced Wilde's rejection of conventional Victorian morality in favour of beauty, pleasure and flexible moral attitudes.