Context (OCR A-Level English Literature): Revision Notes
Context
Comedy of manners
She Stoops to Conquer belongs to a dramatic tradition known as the comedy of manners, which dominated English and French theatre during the late 17th and 18th centuries. Understanding this genre is essential for appreciating Goldsmith's play and its place in literary history.
What is a comedy of manners?
A comedy of manners is a type of play that explores and often mocks the customs, behaviours, and social conventions of contemporary society. This genre has several distinctive features:
- Witty dialogue: Characters engage in clever, sophisticated conversation that reveals their intelligence and social status
- Social satire: The play critiques human weaknesses and social pretensions through humour
- Focus on manners: The plot centres on how people behave in social situations, particularly among the upper classes
- Comic rather than tragic: Unlike romantic comedy, which aims to evoke sympathy or sadness, comedy of manners uses sharp wit to expose foolishness
The comedy of manners distinguishes itself from other comic forms through its emphasis on social behaviour and manners rather than emotional responses. This focus on how people present themselves in society makes it particularly effective for satirising the upper classes and their pretensions.
Historical development of the genre
The comedy of manners emerged gradually between 1660 and 1700, rather than being invented by a single playwright. This period, known as the Restoration, marked the return of King Charles II to the English throne in 1660 after 18 years of Puritan rule when theatres had been closed.
Several important playwrights shaped the genre during this time:
- William Wycherley (1641–1716)
- John Dryden (1631–1700)
- George Etherege (1636–91)
- George Farquhar (1678–1707)
- John Gay (1685–1732)
- John Vanbrugh (1664–1726)
- Aphra Behn (c. 1640–89)
- William Congreve (1670–1729)
These writers are collectively known as Restoration dramatists. Many of them were influenced by the French playwright Molière (1622–73), whose comedies of manners dominated French theatre in the mid-17th century. This French influence occurred because many English royalists and aristocrats spent their exile in France during the Commonwealth period (1649–60), when they fled Parliamentary rule after the execution of Charles I.
The genre in the 18th century
During the 1700s, the comedy of manners continued to flourish with playwrights such as John Gay, Oliver Goldsmith, and Richard Brinsley Sheridan. Goldsmith and Sheridan shared several similarities:
- Both were Anglo-Irish writers
- Both championed laughing comedy over sentimental comedy
- Both achieved significant success in London during the 1770s
- Both employed social satire and clever dialogue in their works
Laughing comedy aimed to entertain through wit and humour, whilst sentimental comedy sought to evoke emotional responses and moral lessons. Goldsmith firmly believed in the superiority of laughing comedy, which is evident in She Stoops to Conquer. This distinction is crucial for understanding the play's tone and purpose – Goldsmith deliberately chose to amuse rather than moralise.
Speaking names and allegorical characters
One of the most recognisable features of comedy of manners is the use of speaking names (also called allegorical names). These are character names that reflect personality traits or roles. Whilst this device dates back to ancient Greek comedy by Aristophanes and Menander (5th and 4th centuries BCE), Restoration and 18th-century dramatists revived it to honour their classical heritage.
Examples from Other Comedies of Manners
In William Congreve's The Way of the World (1700):
- Lady Wishfort – suggests wishful thinking
- Mrs Fainall – implies feigned behaviour
In Richard Brinsley Sheridan's The Rivals (1775):
- Mrs Malaprop – a character who misuses words, such as saying "She's as headstrong as an allegory on the banks of the Nile" when she means "alligator"
- The joke has another layer since crocodiles, not alligators, inhabit the Nile
In She Stoops to Conquer, Goldsmith uses speaking names for comic effect:
- Minor characters have obvious comic names: Mrs Oddfish, little Cripplegate, and Aunt Pedigree
- Tony Lumpkin invents humorous place names like Quagmire Marsh and Crackskull Common
- Major characters have more subtle meaningful names:
- Kate Hardcastle – suggests determination and strength (hard)
- Constance Neville – implies faithfulness and consistency (constant)
- George Hastings – conveys urgency and speed (haste)
Classical influences and the three unities
Restoration and 18th-century dramatists admired classical literature, which influenced their dramatic structure. Many comedies of manners attempted to follow the three unities derived from ancient Greek and Latin drama:
- Unity of time: All events occur within approximately 24 hours
- Unity of place: The action takes place in one location
- Unity of action: The plot follows a single main storyline
These classical conventions gave structure to comedies of manners and demonstrated the playwrights' sophisticated understanding of dramatic theory. By adhering to these unities, dramatists showed their respect for classical traditions whilst creating entertaining contemporary works.
The Age of Johnson
The second half of the 18th century is often called the Age of Johnson, named after Samuel Johnson (1709–84), the most celebrated literary figure of the period. Just as Alexander Pope (1688–1744) embodied the early Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and rationality, Johnson came to represent the literary achievements of the later 1700s.
Samuel Johnson's achievements
Johnson's reputation rests on an impressive body of work:
- Poetry: He wrote satires in rhymed couplets modelled on the ancient Roman poet Juvenal, including the famous poem "The Vanity of Human Wishes"
- Essays: He produced three series of periodical essays – The Rambler, The Adventurer, and The Idler – which became exemplars of the form alongside works by earlier writers Joseph Addison (1672–1719) and Richard Steele (1672–1729)
- Dictionary of the English Language (1755): This landmark reference work, compiled by Johnson with minimal assistance, remained authoritative for decades
- Fiction: His short philosophical novel Rasselas appeared in 1759
- Literary criticism: Johnson published an edition of Shakespeare's plays (1765) and The Lives of the Poets (1779–81), which secured his reputation as a leading critic
- Conversation: He was renowned as a brilliant conversationalist, as recorded by James Boswell (1740–95) in The Life of Samuel Johnson
Johnson's productivity was particularly remarkable between 1749 and 1759, when he produced much of his most significant work after a slow start to his career.
Johnson's relationship to Goldsmith
Goldsmith dedicated She Stoops to Conquer to Samuel Johnson, which should be understood as a tribute to the greatest literary figure of the age. Johnson's support of Goldsmith as a protégé significantly advanced the playwright's reputation and influence in literary circles. This connection placed Goldsmith within the most prestigious intellectual network of his time.
Actors and playhouses
The theatrical world of Goldsmith's era had transformed dramatically from earlier periods. Understanding these changes helps explain the context in which She Stoops to Conquer was performed.
Changes after the Restoration
When theatre returned to London in 1660 with Charles II's restoration to the throne, the dramatic landscape underwent major transformations after 18 years of closure during Puritan rule.
Women on stage
For the first time in English theatrical history, women performed female roles. Previously, in Elizabethan and Jacobean theatre, boys had played all women's parts. This revolutionary change brought enormous popularity to the theatre.
The introduction of actresses on the English stage was a revolutionary development that fundamentally changed audience expectations and the types of roles playwrights could create. This transformation allowed for more nuanced and realistic portrayals of female characters.
Notable actresses included:
- Nell Gwyn (1650–87) – who famously caught the king's attention
- Sarah Siddons (1755–1831) – celebrated for her dramatic performances
Expanded playhouses
Theatres grew considerably in size during the 18th century. Around 1775, David Garrick (1717–79), the actor and producer who managed Drury Lane Theatre, expanded it to accommodate approximately 2,300 spectators. After a devastating fire in the early 1800s, capacity increased to more than 3,000 people.
Alongside larger venues came new forms of entertainment, including ballet, pantomime, and circus acts, which supplemented traditional dramatic performances.
Theatre across Britain
The theatrical boom extended far beyond London. By the late 18th century, theatres had been established in numerous towns throughout Britain, including Bath, Bristol, Bury St. Edmunds, and Stockton-on-Tees. Experts estimate that by 1805, more than 280 venues for theatrical entertainment existed across England – a dramatic increase from only a handful in the early 1700s.
This expansion meant that successful plays could tour the country. Evidence shows that She Stoops to Conquer was performed at the King Street Theatre in Bristol in 1775, just two years after its triumphant London premiere in 1773. This demonstrates how quickly popular productions spread throughout Britain's growing theatrical network.
Key Points to Remember:
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Comedy of manners dramatises and satirises social customs through witty dialogue and clever characterisation, distinguishing itself from other comic forms through its focus on manners rather than emotion
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The genre developed during the Restoration period (1660–1700) and flourished in the 18th century, influenced by French playwright Molière and shaped by numerous English dramatists
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Speaking names are character names that reveal personality traits, a convention borrowed from classical comedy that Goldsmith employs throughout She Stoops to Conquer
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The play belongs to the Age of Johnson, and Goldsmith's dedication to Samuel Johnson connected him to the most prestigious literary circles of the period
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Theatrical expansion in the 18th century meant larger audiences, women performers, and venues throughout Britain, allowing plays like She Stoops to Conquer to reach widespread audiences