Covalent Molecules

Definition:

• Covalent molecules are small groups of atoms held together by strong covalent bonds within the molecule and weak intermolecular forces between the molecules.

Covalent Bonds:

• Covalent bonds are formed when two non-metal atoms share a pair of electrons, resulting in electrostatic attraction between the shared electrons and the positive nuclei of the atoms.
• This sharing of electrons allows the atoms to achieve a stable outer electron arrangement similar to a noble gas.

Examples of Diatomic Elements:

• Many discrete covalent molecules consist of diatomic elements, such as:
  • Hydrogen (H2)
  • Nitrogen (N2)
  • Oxygen (O2)
  • Fluorine (F2)
  • Chlorine (Cl2)

Examples of Larger Covalent Molecular Elements:

• Some covalent molecular elements are more substantial and include:
  • Phosphorus (P4)
  • Sulfur (S8)
  • Fullerenes (e.g., C60)

Intermolecular Forces:

• Covalent molecules are attracted to each other through weak intermolecular forces, such as London dispersion forces or dipole-dipole interactions.

---

Covalent molecules

Properties:

• Covalent molecules tend to have lower melting and boiling points compared to ionic compounds.
• They can exist as solids, liquids, or gases at room temperature, depending on their molecular size and intermolecular forces.

Summary:

• Covalent molecules consist of atoms bonded together by covalent bonds, where electrons are shared between non-metal atoms. These molecules can range from diatomic elements like hydrogen and oxygen to more substantial structures like sulfur and fullerenes. Weak intermolecular forces between covalent molecules contribute to their physical properties.