Causes and Challenges

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The Space Race was part of the Cold War competition between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Both superpowers wanted to prove their superiority in technology and their political and social systems. Beyond national pride, the Space Race had clear military implications. Rockets needed to carry satellites and men into space were also capable of delivering nuclear warheads. Satellites in orbit could be used for communications, spying, and early warnings of attacks.

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Sputnik

On October 4, 1957, the Soviets surprised the world by launching the first man-made satellite into space. The 83-kg Sputnik (Russian for "baby moon") successfully orbited Earth and sent back a radio signal. The Americans, proud of their scientific and industrial leadership, felt humiliated by this sudden Soviet achievement. Shortly after, the U.S. satellite Vanguard TV3's failed launch made this setback even more painful.

The U.S. public quickly understood the military implications of satellites. If the Soviets could send satellites into space on rockets, they could potentially hit U.S. cities with ICBMs (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles). During this high tension, an article titled "The Case for Being Panicky" was published, and Senator Lyndon Johnson demanded President Eisenhower address the perceived "missile gap." Eisenhower reassured the public that U.S. missile technology was on par with the Soviets, based on intelligence from secret U-2 spy plane flights over Soviet missile sites. Public alarm lessened when the U.S. launched its own satellite, Explorer 1, in February 1958.

Historian Susan-Mary Grant described the Sputnik launch:

"The launch of Sputnik caused a media and political storm in the United States. Comparisons with Pearl Harbour revealed how seriously some Americans took this simultaneous challenge to their scientific and social superiority and threat to their national security."

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NASA

President Eisenhower took steps to catch up with the Soviets in the Space Race. First, the National Defence Education Act was passed in 1958, allocating $900 million for better science and math education and funding college scholarships. By the mid-1960s, many more students enrolled in higher education, and nearly one-third of university scientists and engineers were involved in government projects.

Second, Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to coordinate space efforts. In 1958, Project Mercury was announced, aiming to send the first American astronauts into space. Though the Soviets initially led with the first satellite and man in space (Yuri Gagarin in 1961), Alan Shepard became the first American in space later that year. In 1962, John Glenn orbited Earth aboard Friendship 7.

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Kennedy's Challenge

During the 1960 presidential election, John F. Kennedy accused the Eisenhower administration of allowing a "missile gap" with the Soviets. After taking office in January 1961, Kennedy received a report stating that putting a man in space was not an end in itself but a necessary step towards establishing a space station and exploring the Moon and planets.

Kennedy challenged the nation to land a man on the Moon and return him safely before the decade's end, a goal set in his speech to Congress on May 25, 1961. Despite setbacks and fierce competition from the Soviets, this ambitious goal unified and energised the U.S. space program.

In a speech at Rice University in September 1962, Kennedy stated: "The exploration of space will go ahead, whether we join in it or not... No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in the race for space." Kennedy's vision fixed the goal of reaching the Moon by the end of the 1960s, and his assassination in 1963 turned this into a national tribute to his leadership.

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The Gemini Missions

NASA began preparing for a Moon mission with the Gemini Project, which achieved several key milestones:

• They flew two-person crews, serving as models for Apollo's larger ships.
• In June 1965, Edward White completed the first American spacewalk.
• Gemini 5 demonstrated an eight-day endurance necessary for lunar missions, using fuel cells for power.
• Gemini 8 achieved the first space docking between two vehicles.
• In November 1966, the first automatic re-entry into Earth's atmosphere was completed.

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