Ford and Detente, Carter and SALT II, SALT and the Helsinki Agreement

Gerald Ford and His Approach to Détente

Gerald Ford became President of the United States in 1974 after Richard Nixon resigned. Ford continued Nixon's policy of détente, seeking to reduce tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.

• Continuity of Détente: Ford maintained the policies of diplomacy and negotiation initiated by Nixon. He believed that reducing Cold War tensions was crucial for global stability.
• Vladivostok Summit: In 1974, Ford met with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev in Vladivostok, Russia, to discuss further arms control agreements. They reached a preliminary agreement to limit the number of strategic nuclear delivery vehicles, setting the stage for the future SALT II negotiations.
• Challenges: Ford faced criticism from both conservatives, who felt détente was too lenient, and liberals, who believed it didn't address human rights issues in the Soviet Union. Despite these challenges, Ford remained committed to reducing the risk of nuclear conflict through continued dialogue and arms control efforts.

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The Helsinki Agreement

The Helsinki Agreement, also known as the Helsinki Accords, was signed in 1975 and was a major diplomatic achievement during Ford's presidency.

Background

The Helsinki Accords were the result of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), which included 35 nations from both the Western and Eastern Blocs.

Key Provisions agreed in the Helsinki Agreement

1. It recognised the borders of European countries established after World War II, reducing the chance of territorial disputes.
2. It Promoted increased economic, scientific, and technological cooperation between East and West.
3. It included commitments to respect human rights and fundamental freedoms, including freedom of speech, religion, and movement.

The Importance of the Helsinki Agreement

1. The agreement helped reduce Cold War tensions by establishing a framework for cooperation and dialogue.
2. Although the Soviet Union initially saw the human rights provisions as non-binding, they became a powerful tool for dissidents in Eastern Europe, who used the Helsinki Accords to demand greater freedoms and reforms.
3. The Helsinki Accords laid the groundwork for ongoing East-West dialogue and were a significant step towards the eventual end of the Cold War.

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Carter and SALT 2 - Key Points to Note

• The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II) were a continuation of the SALT I negotiations aimed at controlling and limiting nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union.
• President Jimmy Carter took office in 1977 and prioritised arms control as a key aspect of his foreign policy, continuing the efforts begun under Presidents Nixon and Ford.
• SALT II aimed to establish comprehensive limits on the number of strategic nuclear weapons and delivery systems, including intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and heavy bombers.
• Carter engaged in extensive negotiations with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, leading to the signing of the SALT II treaty on June 18, 1979, in Vienna, Austria.
• SALT II set limits on the number of strategic nuclear launchers, banned new ICBM launchers, and capped the number of MIRVed (multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle) missiles each side could deploy.
• The treaty included provisions for verification, allowing both nations to use satellites and other means to monitor compliance with the terms.
• Despite the treaty's goals, Carter faced significant opposition from U.S. senators and critics who were sceptical of the Soviet Union's commitment to arms control and feared the treaty would limit U.S. defensive capabilities.
• The treaty was submitted to the U.S. Senate for ratification but faced delays and increasing opposition, particularly after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979.
• In response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Carter withdrew the SALT II treaty from Senate consideration, citing the invasion as a breach of international norms and a threat to global stability.
• Although the U.S. Senate never formally ratified SALT II, the United States and the Soviet Union largely adhered to its terms until the mid-1980s. The treaty laid the groundwork for future arms control agreements, including the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) negotiations in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

It should be known that yes, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan did mark the end of SALT 2 as we know it, as the trust had been broken. The American reaction to the end of SALT 2 was interesting, here are some key points on it:

• The US boycott the 1980 Olympics in Moscow
• Congress did not ratify SALT 2 at all - they did not allow it to pass
• The US stopped grain sales to the USSR
• The US also promised to help the Mujahideen, a guerilla Afghan force opposing the Soviets.

The breaking of this trust by the USSR well and truly killed off diplomatic relations, and paved the way for Ronald Reagan, a man who referred to the Soviet Union as an 'evil empire' to be elected in 1981.

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Additional Context: The Iran Hostage Crisis and its effect on Detente

• The Iran Hostage Crisis began on November 4, 1979, when Iranian militants stormed the U.S. Embassy in Tehran and took 52 American diplomats and citizens hostage. The crisis lasted 444 days, ending on January 20, 1981.
• The crisis severely damaged U.S.-Iran relations, leading to economic sanctions and a complete severing of diplomatic ties. The hostages were held as a protest against the U.S. support for the deposed Shah of Iran.
• The crisis strained U.S. foreign policy and diverted attention away from détente. President Jimmy Carter's administration, which had been focused on easing Cold War tensions, had to address the immediate threat posed by the hostage situation.
• During the crisis, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979, further complicating the geopolitical landscape. The U.S. response to the invasion, which included boycotting the 1980 Moscow Olympics and imposing economic sanctions on the USSR, marked a significant setback for détente.
• The combination of the Iran Hostage Crisis and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan heightened Cold War tensions. The U.S. perception of Soviet aggression and instability in the Middle East led to a more confrontational stance in U.S.-Soviet relations, overshadowing the previous efforts at détente.

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