Foreign Policy around Korea and Cuba (under Truman, Eisenhower and Kennedy)

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Korean War

After the Second World War, Korea was divided along the thirty-eighth parallel into a Soviet-backed North and a US-supported South. This was intended as a temporary arrangement until elections could be held. However, the Soviet Union did not permit elections in the North, unlike the US in the South. In 1950, North Korea attacked and drove South Korean forces into a corner of the country.

President Truman felt compelled to intervene. South Korea had faced an unprovoked attack, and Truman believed the Soviet Union was behind it. He feared that if unchecked, the Soviet Union would "swallow up one piece of Asia after another," similar to how European powers appeased Hitler at Munich. Truman declared, "I had to act as commander-in-chief and I did," thereby bypassing Congress. This decision marked a significant increase in presidential power, later utilised by Presidents Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon during the Vietnam War.

Truman quickly mobilised US forces and sought support from the United Nations (UN), which agreed to help South Korea through a Security Council vote. The Soviet Union was temporarily absent from the Security Council due to a dispute over the recognition of Communist China.

Under General MacArthur, US and allied forces achieved significant early victories. MacArthur led a successful invasion at Inchon, pushing North Korean forces back behind the thirty-eighth parallel by October. However, the US then decided to invade the North, ignoring Chinese warnings. This prompted a massive Chinese counter-invasion with 250,000 troops, recapturing Seoul and driving US and allied forces back. Ultimately, the US forces managed to push the front lines back to the thirty-eighth parallel in bitter and slow fighting.

General MacArthur advocated for attacking China and even suggested using the atomic bomb, but Truman dismissed him. The conflict persisted for two more years, with changes in leadership both in the USSR and the US—Stalin's death in 1953 and Eisenhower's election as US President. Eventually, an armistice was signed, restoring the border at the thirty-eighth parallel. The war cost America over 50,000 soldiers and $20 billion.

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Successes and Failures of the Korean War for Containment

Successes

Failures

• The US and its allies successfully pushed North Korean forces back to the 38th parallel, preventing the entire Korean Peninsula from falling under communist control. • The intervention showed the world that the US was serious about its containment policy and willing to use military force to uphold it. • The war strengthened alliances with other countries fighting against communism, like Japan and members of SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation).

• The war ended in a stalemate with an armistice, not a peace treaty. Korea remained divided at the 38th parallel, essentially where it started. • The war was expensive, costing the US $20 billion and over 50,000 American lives. • China's successful intervention showed its strength and solidified its status as a major communist power.

Effects of the Korean War on US Foreign Policy

The Korean War significantly impacted US foreign policy. President Truman recognised the need to bolster the US military presence in Southeast Asia. He initiated this by signing treaties with Japan and the Philippines in 1951 and forming a defence pact with Australia and New Zealand (ANZAC Pact). These efforts were further extended by President Eisenhower, who established the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). This led to increased US involvement in Asian affairs and an expansion of the policy of containment, resulting in higher military spending. The war also strained relations with China for two decades and brought the US closer to regimes in Taiwan and South Korea.

In Europe, the US policy was also affected. The US believed the defence of Western Europe needed strengthening, leading to demands for West Germany to rearm and become a NATO member, which occurred in 1955.

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US Foreign Policy under Eisenhower

President Eisenhower upheld the containment policy initiated by Truman, subscribing to the Domino Theory. This theory posited that if one country fell to communism, neighbouring countries would follow. Eisenhower emphasised nuclear weapons over conventional ones, relying on a policy of deterrence to prevent Soviet attacks. He believed a strong nuclear arsenal would dissuade the Soviet Union from initiating conflict. Additionally, Eisenhower promoted peaceful coexistence with the Soviet Union and its new leader, Khrushchev, aiming for a harmonious relationship. However, this policy was disrupted when a U-2 spy plane was shot down over Russia.

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Cuban Missile Crisis

It is important to know that at the start of the 1960's, Cold War tension was high between the US and USSR. Paranoia was rife and there was a fear that at any time, this 'Cold War' could turn hot pretty fast.

There was initial talk in the US about a 'Missile gap' which was the idea that the USSR had overtaken the US in missile production, encouraging greater US spending on defence. Fidel Castro had also taken over in Cuba as a Communist leader, which was a little too close to home for America's liking.

New President John F.Kennedy stated in his inauguration speech that "We shall... pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and success of liberty." He followed this with a number of anti-Communist speeches. The enemy is the Communist system itself... increasing in its drive for world domination." He too supported the view that there was a missile gap.

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Kennedy as a Firm and Decisive Leader

Kennedy took an active interest in foreign policy, even more so than domestic policy. He had his own ideas about that policy. In spite of his view about a missile gap, he thought the US was over-reliant on nuclear weapons. Instead, he wanted a policy of flexible response in order to be able to respond quickly to regional conflicts. He also supported the development of counter-insurgency forces (counter-terrorism) such as the Green Berets. These policies led to increased defence spending.

Kennedy also believed in firm and decisive action; he believed this displayed a certain toughness. This contributed to Kennedy's support for an attempt to overthrow Castro through an invasion in the Bay of Pigs in April 1960. This was a disastrous failure which was a huge embarrassment for the Kennedy government.

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How did the Soviets view the US?

Another factor in the development of the Cuban Missile Crisis was the attitude of Khrushchev, the Soviet leader. He pledged USSR aid to "wars of national liberation." He was aggressive toward Kennedy when they met in Vienna in June 1960 and they failed to agree on Berlin, leading to a heightening of tension between the two sides. Khrushchev thought he was dealing with a weak and indecisive leader. Thereafter both increased military spending at home. It led to the building of the Berlin Wall to stop the flow of refugees from East Berlin to the West. This led to a further heightening of tension between the two sides.

The Soviet Union gave increased support to Cuba, including the building of missile bases in the summer of 1962. Their range of over 1,000 miles meant that they could hit the major US cities. U-2 flights revealed that the missile sites were nearly ready.

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The American Reaction (Key Context)

• Kennedy set up an Executive Committee (ExComm) to deal with the missile crisis. Over a period of 13 days, the world was on the brink of a third world war. There were various opinions in ExComm on what the US policy should be. Some advised an invasion of Cuba, while others advised air strikes on the missile bases. The more moderate members said that the US should agree to demilitarise Cuba, including withdrawing US forces from their naval bases in Guantanamo, and also remove their missiles from Turkey.
• Kennedy believed he could not appear to be weak, so he did not agree with the ideas of the moderates. He also rejected air strikes because they would not succeed in knocking out all the sites. Instead, he decided on a blockade of Cuba to stop any further Soviet equipment reaching the island. He informed Khrushchev and later the public on television. The naval blockade demonstrated US will to resist Soviet pressure, but it also gave Khrushchev a way out.
• There was huge tension in the US and worldwide. Some Soviet ships turned around, while others without weapons had to be searched. Kennedy demanded the dismantling of the missile bases. On the other hand, Khrushchev wanted the US to lift the blockade and agree not to invade Cuba. He also wanted the US to dismantle their missile sites in Turkey. Kennedy publicly agreed to lift the blockade and call off any invasion. But privately he assured the Soviets of the future dismantling of the Turkish sites. In return, Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the Soviet missile bases.
• While some US military leaders were angry that America did not strike, Kennedy's steady handling of the crisis earned him praise. One journalist said it was 'perhaps the greatest personal diplomatic victory of any US President in our history'. It led to the establishment of a hotline between Moscow and Washington to improve future communications between the leaders and to lessen the dangers of nuclear war. It also led to a Test Ban Treaty, which banned nuclear testing in the air, in space, or underwater.

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Comparing 3 Key Events for and the US Foreign Policy Approaches to them All

Event	Berlin Blockade	Korean War	Cuban Missile Crisis
Containment a success?	Success	Partial Success	Success
US FP Approach	Political and economic pressure, military presence	Direct military intervention via UN forces	Naval blockade, diplomatic negotiations
Quick Details	1. US supported West Berlin during the Berlin Blockade (1948-1949). 2. Airlifted supplies to counter Soviet blockade. 3. Maintained West Berlin as a non-communist enclave.	1. US intervened to repel North Korean invasion. 2. Pushed back North Koreans to the 38th parallel. 3. Avoided the spread of communism to South Korea.	1. Imposed a naval blockade to stop Soviet missile shipments Negotiated the removal of Soviet missiles. 2. Avoided military confrontation and nuclear war.
Containment Outcome	1. Successfully prevented the spread of communism to West Berlin. 2. Demonstrated US commitment to defending non-communist regions.	1. Stalemate resulted in Korea remaining divided at the 38th parallel. 2. South Korea remained non-communist.	1. Successfully removed the immediate nuclear threat from Cuba. 2. Prevented the spread of communism through a strategic victory.
US FP a Success?	1. High success. 2. Maintained West Berlin's independence. 3. Strengthened US alliances and credibility.	1. Mixed success. 2. Achieved containment but at high cost. 3. Ongoing tension and military presence.	1. High success. 2. Demonstrated US resolve and strategic capability. 3. Improved US-Soviet communication and led to the Test Ban Treaty.

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