Sample Answer for What were Joseph Stalin's internal (domestic) and external (foreign) policies?

Following the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924, a power struggle ensued within the Politburo, involving figures such as Trotsky, Kamenev, Zinoviev, and Stalin. Stalin eventually emerged as the leader of the Communist Party, establishing a totalitarian communist state and taking control of the Soviet Union. Stalin's leadership was marked by aggressive internal and external policies in areas such as agriculture, industry, education, terror, and foreign alliances, all of which shaped Soviet society and its position on the global stage.

One of Stalin's most significant internal policies was collectivisation. He sought to address Russia's agricultural inefficiencies by consolidating peasant-owned farms into large state-run collective farms known as kolkhoz. However, this policy faced immense resistance, particularly from the wealthier peasants known as kulaks, who destroyed livestock and machinery in protest. Between 1929 and 1933, millions of animals were killed in an attempt to sabotage collectivisation. In response, Stalin's regime arrested and deported millions of kulaks to labour camps. While 58% of peasants had joined collective farms by 1930, the policy led to widespread famine, resulting in the deaths of ten million people. Despite initial resistance, by 1937, over 90% of Russian farmland had been collectivised. As opposition diminished, food production gradually improved, with private plots yielding more food than the collective farms.

In stark contrast to collectivisation, Stalin's industrialisation policies were highly successful in transforming the Soviet Union into an industrial power. Aiming to modernise Russia and make it self-sufficient, Stalin launched a series of Five-Year Plans. The first plan, introduced in 1928, focused on expanding heavy industries such as coal, iron, and electricity. Under Stalin's leadership, electricity production increased by 160%, iron by 100%, and coal by 80%. The second Five-Year Plan (1932–1937) placed greater emphasis on infrastructure and consumer goods, resulting in the construction of railways, canals, and airports. Although the third Five-Year Plan (1937–1941) was disrupted by the Nazi invasion, its focus on military production contributed to Russia's eventual war effort. By 1939, the USSR had become Europe's second-largest industrial power, trailing only Germany, with the urban population doubling as a result of industrialisation.

Education reforms were another crucial aspect of Stalin's internal policies. Recognising the need for a skilled workforce to support industrialisation, Stalin expanded education across the Soviet Union. School attendance for children aged eight to fifteen became compulsory, and adults were encouraged to pursue higher education. By 1940, the literacy rate had dramatically improved, with only 15% of the population still illiterate, and over one million people had obtained university degrees. Stalin's reforms made the Soviet Union one of the most literate nations by the time of his death in 1953. His focus on education demonstrated his commitment to social change, making this one of his most successful domestic policies.

Stalin's totalitarian regime also relied heavily on propaganda, surveillance, and control. In 1936, he introduced a new constitution, which he claimed to be the "only thoroughly democratic constitution in the world." In reality, this constitution was a facade for his authoritarian rule, as only Communist Party candidates could stand for election, and the supposed freedoms of speech and assembly were non-existent. Stalin exerted complete control over Soviet society, with the NKVD, his secret police, monitoring every aspect of life. The NKVD spied on, arrested, tortured, and executed dissidents, reinforcing Stalin's cult of personality, where his image was omnipresent, and propaganda presented him as a godlike figure. The regime's repression created an atmosphere of fear throughout the Soviet Union.

Stalin's terror reached its peak with the Show Trials of the 1930s, which aimed to eliminate his political enemies and solidify his control. These trials were staged public spectacles designed to demonstrate the guilt of Stalin's opponents. The first Show Trial in August 1936 targeted Kamenev, Zinoviev, and others accused of plotting to kill Stalin. Subsequent trials in 1937 and 1938 accused high-ranking officials such as Bukharin and Rykov of espionage and sabotage. Many were executed, while others were sent to the infamous gulags, where 90% of prisoners died from overwork, malnutrition, or violence. The Show Trials and purges ensured that Stalin's regime ruled through fear, consolidating his power at the expense of millions of lives.

Externally, Stalin initially pursued a policy of isolation to focus on domestic policies like collectivisation and industrialisation. However, the rise of fascism in Europe, particularly in Germany, prompted Stalin to reconsider. In 1934, the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations, seeking collective security against the growing fascist threat. Stalin also formed alliances with neighbouring capitalist states such as Poland, Lithuania, and Estonia. However, his trust in collective security waned after Britain and France excluded him from key negotiations during the Munich Conference in 1938, where they allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland without consulting Stalin.

Stalin's most controversial external policy was the Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939. In this non-aggression agreement with Hitler, Stalin secretly secured the right to invade Poland, the Baltic States, and Finland to reclaim territory lost by Russia in 1918. Although the pact seemed to align Stalin with Hitler, it was a strategic move that bought Stalin time to rebuild the Red Army, which had been weakened by the purges. When Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, began in 1941, Stalin was able to mount a defence, most notably during the Battle of Stalingrad. Stalin's decision to relocate factories beyond the Ural Mountains to safeguard industrial production from German bombers demonstrated his pragmatic decision-making and contributed to the eventual Soviet victory in World War II.

Stalin's internal and external policies were a mix of success and failure. While collectivisation led to widespread suffering and famine, his industrialisation programmes transformed the Soviet Union into a major industrial power. His education reforms dramatically improved literacy rates, and his ruthless terror tactics ensured his grip on power. Externally, Stalin's alliances were pragmatic, enabling him to navigate the dangers of fascism and rebuild Soviet military strength in time for World War II. Ultimately, Stalin's policies shaped the USSR's emergence as a global superpower, but at an immense human cost.