Sample Answer for Why were the negotiations and terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) controversial?

The period leading up to the Anglo-Irish Treaty was marked by increasing tensions between Irish nationalists and unionists, as well as a growing breakdown in relations with Britain. Support for republicanism surged, particularly after the 1916 Easter Rising, with figures like Michael Collins remarking that the "martyrdoms that followed 1916... finally awoke the sleeping spirit of Ireland." By the time the War of Independence reached a truce on 11 July 1921, both Ireland and Britain were eager for peace. However, while the ceasefire brought temporary relief from violence, the negotiations and terms of the eventual Anglo-Irish Treaty would prove to be one of the most controversial episodes in Irish history.

By the summer of 1921, the ongoing War of Independence had become a costly and unpopular conflict in Britain, with increasing international pressure to resolve it. Despite British Prime Minister David Lloyd George's hardline statements about "having murder by the throat," he and his government acknowledged that the Irish Republican Army (IRA) had made Ireland ungovernable. On 22 June 1921, during the opening of the Northern Irish Parliament, the British extended an invitation for peace talks. Éamon de Valera, however, insisted that all military activities cease before any negotiations. On 11 July 1921, a truce was reached, marking a shift from armed struggle to political diplomacy. Although the IRA had forced Britain to the negotiating table, it was clear they were exhausted, low on supplies, and facing pressure from within the nationalist community to end the conflict.

As President of the Dáil, de Valera led a small delegation, including Arthur Griffith, Austin Stack, and Erskine Childers, to London to meet with Lloyd George. These early talks were intended as preliminary discussions, with neither side prepared to make significant concessions. Lloyd George was willing to offer dominion status, granting Ireland self-government within the British Commonwealth, but requiring recognition of the British monarch as head of state. De Valera found this unacceptable, demanding full Irish independence. The result was a deadlock, with de Valera returning to Ireland, and both leaders exchanging letters in an effort to find common ground. Finally, on 30 September, de Valera accepted an invitation for official talks in London, without any preconditions.

In a surprising move, de Valera chose not to lead the Irish delegation to London, deciding instead to remain in Dublin. This decision was motivated by several factors. As the elected President of the Irish Republic, de Valera had sworn to uphold the Republic and felt that being seen as compromising might weaken his position. Staying in Dublin also allowed him to distance himself from the intense atmosphere of the negotiations and ensure that any draft agreements would be carefully considered before being signed. Some suggested that de Valera feared the unpopularity that would come with failing to secure a 32-county republic, so he chose to leave the difficult task to others. His absence, however, created confusion and controversy, leaving the Irish delegation without strong leadership during crucial moments.

The Irish delegation was led by Arthur Griffith and included Michael Collins, Robert Barton, George Gavan Duffy, and Erskine Childers. Though these plenipotentiaries were empowered to negotiate and sign a treaty on behalf of the Dáil, de Valera undermined their authority by instructing them to refer any draft treaty back to the cabinet in Dublin before signing it. This created significant confusion, especially as some cabinet members, like Cathal Brugha and Austin Stack, viewed any negotiation short of British withdrawal from Ireland as treason. The British, however, remained adamant that a republic was not an option. De Valera's proposal for "external association," which would have allowed Ireland self-government while voluntarily associating with the Commonwealth, was swiftly rejected. The British feared this arrangement would undermine the monarchy and the cohesion of the Commonwealth itself.

As negotiations progressed, a key sticking point emerged over the status of Ulster. To prevent a collapse of the talks, Griffith accepted the idea of a Boundary Commission, which would determine the borders between Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State. This was seen as a potential compromise, allowing Ulster's status to be reviewed later. While the British and Irish delegations found common ground on issues like trade and defence, the question of Ireland's constitutional status remained unresolved. Eventually, Griffith and Collins conceded that some recognition of the British monarchy would be necessary, and on 28 November, Lloyd George offered dominion status similar to Canada's, which, while not guaranteeing complete freedom from British interference, significantly reduced the likelihood of future British intervention.

The British presented their final proposals on 1 December 1921, which were debated by the Irish cabinet. While Griffith, Collins, and Eamonn Duggan saw the offer as Britain's final word, Barton and Childers disagreed, leading to a heated confrontation. Upon returning to London, Lloyd George delivered an ultimatum: sign the treaty or resume war. With no opportunity to return to Dublin for further consultation, Collins and Griffith persuaded their colleagues to sign the treaty on 6 December. They recognised that rejecting the deal would lead to renewed and likely unwinnable conflict. As Collins later reflected, "I tell you this, early this morning I have signed my death warrant," aware of the consequences the treaty would have.

The Anglo-Irish Treaty established Southern Ireland as the Irish Free State, which would operate as a dominion within the British Empire. Dáil members were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the British crown, a condition that deeply angered many extreme republicans. Additionally, the Treaty Ports—Cobh, Berehaven, and Lough Swilly—remained under British control, and the Free State was responsible for paying a portion of Britain's war debts. Although the treaty granted Ireland significant autonomy, these provisions sparked outrage, particularly over the oath of allegiance, which split the IRA and Irish society, leading to the Irish Civil War. Éamon de Valera, vehemently opposed to the treaty, declared, "I am against this Treaty... because it will not end the centuries of conflict between Great Britain and Ireland." The divisions caused by the treaty would take years to reconcile.

The signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in December 1921 marked a turning point in Ireland's struggle for independence, but it also set the stage for further conflict. De Valera's rejection of the treaty, along with the deep divisions it caused within the IRA and Irish society, led to the Irish Civil War. Despite the bitter controversy, Michael Collins defended the treaty as a stepping stone to full independence, famously stating, "It gave us freedom, not the ultimate freedom that all nations desire… but the freedom to achieve it." Though not a perfect solution, the treaty ultimately paved the way for the establishment of the Irish Free State and Ireland's eventual independence from Britain.