The Origins of African Nationalism (Grade 11 NSC Matric History): Revision Notes
The Origins of African Nationalism
African nationalism emerged as a powerful political movement in South Africa during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This movement sought to secure political rights, land ownership, and dignity for African people who faced increasing discrimination under colonial and later apartheid rule.
Historical background: The foundations (late 19th - early 20th century)
The rise of an educated middle class
During the 19th century, a new group of leaders began to emerge in South African society. These were Western-educated African, Coloured, and Indian middle-class individuals who lived mainly in Cape Town and Natal. Most of these men worked as professionals - doctors, lawyers, teachers, and newspaper editors.
This educated elite was proud of their African, Muslim, and Indian heritage, but they also believed strongly in the idea of "progressive civilisation". They thought that Western education and culture could benefit all people, regardless of race. This belief would later influence how early nationalist organisations approached their struggle for rights.
The term "Coloured" is used here as it appeared in historical sources of the time. It referred to people of mixed racial heritage in the South African context. While this terminology is considered outdated today, it's important to understand how these communities were classified and identified themselves during this historical period.
The impact of the South African War (1899-1902)
The South African War (also called the Boer War) created a turning point for nationalist thinking. Many African, Coloured, and Indian people supported the British forces during this conflict. They suffered significant losses - their property was destroyed, and many died during the fighting.
The crucial disappointment: These communities expected that the British government would reward their loyalty after the war by:
- Restoring their damaged property
- Defending their land rights
- Providing better education opportunities
- Creating new opportunities for advancement
But this did not happen. Instead, black leaders watched in horror as the British government prepared to hand over political power to white settlers in the new Union of South Africa (1910). This betrayal showed black South Africans that they needed to organise themselves to protect their interests.
Early nationalist organisations
The disappointment following the South African War led to the formation of several important organisations that would shape the future of African nationalism.
The African People's Organisation (APO)
The APO was formed by a group of Coloured political leaders in Cape Town after the South African War. Dr Abdullah Abdurahman joined the organisation after returning from Scotland and quickly became its most influential leader.
Key features of the APO:
- Dr Abdurahman became president in 1905 and remained leader until his death in 1940
- By 1910, the organisation had grown to 20,000 members
- Initially, the APO focused on rights for Coloured people but later recognised that oppressed racial groups needed to work together to achieve meaningful change
Historical Example: The 1909 London Delegation
When the APO sent a delegation to London in 1909 to request rights for "Coloured" people (meaning all British subjects in South Africa who were not European), the mission failed completely. This failure taught them that isolated struggles would not succeed against white political power.
The Natal Indian Congress (NIC)
The NIC was possibly the first organisation in South Africa to use the word "Congress" in its name. It was established in 1894 to mobilise Indian opposition to racial discrimination in the Colony of Natal.
Significant contributions to nationalism:
- Founded by MK Gandhi, who would later lead massive peaceful resistance campaigns (called Satyagraha) that forced Britain to grant independence to India in 1947
- Organised many protests and campaigns for Indian rights
- 1908 breakthrough: Hundreds of Indians gathered outside the Johannesburg mosque to protest against laws that forced Indians to carry passes
- The passive resistance campaigns succeeded in ending the requirement for Indians to carry passes
Although the NIC achieved some victories for Indian rights, it failed to win full citizenship rights for Indians. The organisation did not join broader national movements for the rights of all citizens until the 1930s and 1940s.
The South African Native National Congress (SANNC)
In response to the formation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, young African leaders recognised the need for a national organisation that could unite various African groups.
Formation and leadership:
- 8 January 1912: The first African nationalist movement was formed at a meeting in Bloemfontein
- Key founders: Pixley ka Isaka Seme, Richard Msimang, George Montsioa, and Alfred Mangena worked with established leaders from the South African Native Convention
- Leadership composition: Traditional chiefs, teachers, writers, intellectuals, and businessmen attended the founding meeting
- Most delegates had received missionary education and believed strongly in 19th-century values of "improvement" and "progress"
Name change and identity: In 1924, the SANNC changed its name to the African National Congress (ANC) to assert African identity more strongly.
Early tactics and approaches: The SANNC/ANC initially avoided mass mobilisation and instead tried to persuade the white government through:
- Writing letters and organising petitions
- Sending delegations to meet with British and South African politicians
- Publishing their own newspaper - Abantu Batho (The People) - in five languages from May 1912
- Organising a delegation to Britain in 1914 to pressure the British government to force the Union government to withdraw the Land Act
These activities became known as "the politics of petition" because they focused on respectful requests rather than mass protests.
Limitations of early ANC approach:
Until the 1940s, the ANC mostly did not seek to mobilise mass resistance, partly because of:
- Poor organisation and lack of funding
- The middle-class nature of ANC leadership
- Preference for persuasion and petitions rather than confrontation
- Contrast with popular organisations: This approach differed sharply from working-class organisations like the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICU)
Most rural black South Africans were not initially attracted to the type of nationalism the ANC presented during this early period.
Worker movements and their influence on nationalism
The Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICU)
By the 1920s, the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union became the biggest African protest movement in South Africa. This organisation played a crucial role in developing African nationalist consciousness among working-class people.
Formation and leadership:
- Formed in 1919
- Leader: Clements Kadalie, a Malawian worker who had led successful strikes among dockworkers in Cape Town
- Membership: Mostly active among farmers and migrant workers, although it was difficult to organise workers who were only temporarily away from their farms
ICU activities and impact:
Protest actions:
- ICU activists held mass protest meetings
- Organised local strikes and demonstrations over grievances such as low wages, evictions, and police brutality
- Gave mostly rural people a voice to demand restoration of their land
Successes:
- Provided a platform for rural communities to express their frustrations
- Established branches throughout South Africa
- Successfully highlighted issues like unfair treatment of migrant workers (for example, Durban City Council's practice of disinfecting migrant workers like cattle)
Limitations and failures:
- The ICU was unable to deliver on its promise to save people from oppression
- Leaders were frequently arrested, meetings and campaigns were banned
- The organisation was prohibited from operating on mine compounds
- By 1930, the ICU had virtually disappeared
Post-World War I developments
After World War I, worker organisation became increasingly sophisticated, influenced by both trade unions and the South African Communist Party (SACP).
The Industrial Workers of Africa (IWA) became one of the first trade unions that:
- Appealed for working-class unity that differed from the middle-class nationalism of the ANC
- Led campaigns against pass laws
- Organised numerous strikes during the 1920s
IWA slogans reflected their inclusive approach:
- "There is only one way to freedom, black workers"
- "Unite as workers, unite! Forget the things that divide you"
- "Let there no longer be any talk of Basotho, Zulu or Shangaan"
- "You are all labourers, let labour be your common bond!"
Tensions within the ANC: There were significant divisions among ANC leaders during this period. Some younger members, mainly from Johannesburg, wanted to support worker action, while older, more middle-class leaders like Sol Plaatje preferred moderation and saw younger members as dangerously socialist.
The 1920 miners' strike: A turning point
February 1920: Over 70,000 black miners went on strike, forcing 21 mines to close down. This massive action demonstrated the potential power of organised black workers.
Primary Source: Sol Plaatje's Account
Sol Plaatje wrote about attending the Native Congress at Bloemfontein: "I had to attend the Native Congress at Bloemfontein to prevent the spread among our people of the Johannesburg socialist propaganda... The ten Transvaal delegates came to the Congress... with a determination that was perfectly astounding to our customary native demeanour at conferences. They spoke almost in unison, in short sentences, nearly all of which began and ended with the word 'strike'."
This quote reveals the tension between older, moderate ANC leaders and younger, more militant members who wanted direct action.
Government response: The government called in police and army forces. Workers were surrounded in their compounds, beaten, and driven back to work at gunpoint. This became the biggest strike in South Africa's history until the great strikes of the 1980s.
Significance: The suppression of the 1920 strike revealed the weaknesses of black worker organisation during the early period of South Africa's industrialisation.
Understanding the weaknesses (1920s-1930s)
Several factors limited the effectiveness of early black worker organisations:
Key weaknesses:
- Identity confusion: Most mine workers still thought of themselves as farmers rather than industrial workers
- Lack of unity: There was not enough unity among black people for effective resistance
- Insufficient momentum: The national resistance movement lacked the strength to sustain long-term campaigns
- Limited nationalist consciousness: Many workers had not yet developed a strong sense of African nationalism
The turning point - 1930s: Black workers began to find more effective ways of organising, which enabled them to challenge employers and win improvements in wages and working conditions.
Growth of manufacturing industry (1930s-1940s):
- A growing urban working class became permanently settled in towns
- The focus of black resistance began shifting from rural to urban areas
- Workers in specific industries formed industrial trade unions
- Many union leaders became members of the SACP, which had both white and black leaders
- Important note: The SACP worked mainly in black unions because white workers often sided with employers rather than supporting worker solidarity across racial lines
The emergence of two types of nationalism
By the 1930s, it became clear that two distinct kinds of black African nationalism were developing within the liberation movement.
Non-racial nationalism vs Africanist nationalism
The ANC in the 1930s was a divided organisation where established leaders supported workers' demands for better wages and equal laws, but did not support the confrontational or socialist ideas promoted by communist activists.
Communist leaders (including ZK Mathews, JB Marks, John Nkadimeng, and Govan Mbeki):
- Joined the ANC and called for more active leadership responding to mass demands
- Promoted a non-racial, inclusive form of South African nationalism
- Believed this approach was the first stage toward eventually establishing a socialist state
Africanist leaders (including young black activists like Anton Lembede, Nelson Mandela, and Walter Sisulu):
- Also called for more active leadership of mass resistance
- Were suspicious of white involvement in both established leadership and socialist movements
- Focused specifically on African identity and African-led liberation
The fundamental division: The basic split was between non-racial South African nationalism (working with all racial groups) and Africanist nationalism (focusing on African leadership and identity). This division remained present in the ANC throughout most of its history.
Dr AB Xuma's leadership transition
The election of Dr AB Xuma as ANC president in 1940 showed how these different approaches could work together:
- Background: Medical doctor educated in the USA and Europe
- Bridging leadership: Had respect from both older and younger leaders
- Organisational skills: Rebuilt ANC structures and strengthened the organisation
- Historical significance: Presided over the transition of the ANC into a mass nationalist movement
However, by the second half of the 1940s:
- The left wing began to dominate the ANC
- Xuma was seen as too conservative by younger activists
- He lost his leadership position in the second half of the 1940s
This transition marked the beginning of the ANC's transformation into the mass resistance movement that would eventually challenge apartheid directly.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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African nationalism originated from the disappointment of educated middle-class leaders after the South African War, when Britain failed to reward their loyalty with political rights and protection.
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Three key early organisations laid the foundation: The African People's Organisation (APO), Natal Indian Congress (NIC), and South African Native National Congress (SANNC/ANC, formed in 1912) used legal methods like petitions and delegations to fight discrimination.
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Worker movements brought mass appeal to nationalism - organisations like the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICU) and later trade unions connected nationalist ideas with the struggles of ordinary working people.
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Two competing forms of nationalism emerged by the 1930s: non-racial nationalism (including all racial groups) versus Africanist nationalism (focusing on African leadership and identity), a division that would shape liberation politics for decades.
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The transition from elite to mass movement occurred during the 1940s when worker militancy and youth activism transformed the ANC from a middle-class organisation using "politics of petition" into a mass resistance movement.