New Threats to Global Order (Grade 12 NSC Matric History): Revision Notes
New Threats to Global Order
The collapse of states and new conflicts
When the Cold War ended, many people expected globalisation to bring the world together. However, this optimistic vision faced serious challenges from an unexpected source - the breaking apart of nations.
The end of the Cold War in 1989-1991 initially created optimism about global cooperation and peace, but new types of conflicts soon emerged that challenged this vision.
The Yugoslav crisis and ethnic cleansing
The most significant threat to post-Cold War stability came from the break-up of Yugoslavia. This crisis had devastating consequences:
- Yugoslavia's collapse triggered the first major European war in nearly 50 years
- The conflict lasted seven years (1990-1997) and involved brutal fighting
- The wars introduced the horrific practice of ethnic cleansing - the violent forced removal of entire ethnic groups from their homes
- The conflict only ended with the Dayton Peace Agreement signed in Ohio, USA
Ethnic cleansing represented a new and particularly brutal form of warfare that shocked the international community and demonstrated the limitations of existing peacekeeping mechanisms.
The break-up of both Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union created a major challenge for post-Cold War leaders, forcing them to rethink their approach to international relations.
Localisation versus globalisation
These state collapses raised a critical question: Were local concerns more important than global unity?
This debate led to the rise of localisation - the idea that people should focus on their immediate surroundings rather than global issues. This concept directly challenged globalisation and sparked the emergence of identity politics, where people organised around their specific cultural, ethnic, or religious identities.
The clash of civilisations theory
Huntington's controversial ideas
Political scientist Samuel P. Huntington developed a influential but controversial theory in response to Francis Fukuyama's "The End of History." Huntington's book, "The Clash of Civilisations," argued that:
- Future world conflicts would result from people's inability to coexist due to fundamental differences in beliefs
- The primary division would be between Christianity and Islam
- In America, Christian extremism became intertwined with both domestic politics and foreign policy decisions
- This religious divide would shape America's role in the world
Huntington's theory was highly controversial because it suggested that cultural and religious differences, rather than economic or political factors, would be the primary source of future conflicts.
The rise of terrorism as a threat
Huntington's theory helped explain the growing concept of "terrorism" as a major post-Cold War threat:
- Terrorism referred to individuals or groups opposing Western values and lifestyle
- The most notorious example was Al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden
- Bin Laden's strategy involved conducting a jihad (holy war) against the USA
- His goal was to draw America into prolonged conflicts that would damage the American economic system
Strategic Example: Bin Laden's Economic Warfare
Osama bin Laden's strategy was based on economic calculation rather than just ideology:
Step 1: Conduct attacks that would provoke American military response
Step 2: Draw the US into expensive, prolonged military campaigns\
Step 3: Force America to spend enormous resources on multiple conflicts
Step 4: Weaken the US economy through sustained military expenditure
This approach aimed to achieve victory through economic exhaustion rather than direct military confrontation.
9/11 and the "Global War on Terror"
The September 11 attacks
In 2001, Al-Qaeda executed the first major attack on American soil in 60 years:
- September 11, 2001: Suicide attackers flew planes into the twin towers of the World Trade Centre in New York
- Two additional attacks occurred the same day, collectively known as "9/11"
- These events marked a turning point in global politics and security
The 9/11 attacks fundamentally changed American foreign policy and international relations, marking the beginning of a new era of global conflict focused on terrorism rather than traditional state-to-state warfare.
America's military response
President George W. Bush's reaction fundamentally changed international relations:
- Bush wasted the global sympathy for America by immediately declaring war
- Five days after 9/11, he called for a "crusade" against Al-Qaeda - using loaded religious language
- This military campaign involved the USA and Great Britain as primary allies
Military interventions
The War on Terror expanded rapidly across multiple regions:
Afghanistan (2001):
- America and its allies invaded Afghanistan one month after 9/11
- Afghanistan was targeted as the main supporter of bin Laden and Al-Qaeda
Iraq (2003):
- In March 2003, the US invaded Iraq without allied support
- The goal was to overthrow President Saddam Hussein
- This unilateral action damaged America's international relationships
Global expansion: The War on Terror spread to numerous locations including the Philippines, Horn of Africa, Sahara, Pakistan, Kashmir, and Yemen.
The expansion of the War on Terror to multiple regions demonstrated how the conflict had evolved from a response to 9/11 into a broader global military campaign against various groups and governments.
Emerging global challenges
The War on Terror has highlighted and potentially worsened two critical global problems that represent the next major threats to international stability.
Economic inequality
The War on Terror may be worsening critical global problems:
Global apartheid - the growing gap between rich and poor, both within countries and between nations, is creating increased violence worldwide.
Additionally, market-driven capitalism faces a crisis due to declining confidence in debt-based economic growth, which had fuelled global prosperity for 20 years.
Environmental concerns
The second major challenge involves environmental sustainability - serious questions about Earth's capacity to support and sustain life in the face of human activities.
These twin challenges of economic inequality and environmental degradation may prove more threatening to global stability than terrorism, as they affect billions of people and could lead to resource conflicts, mass migration, and social breakdown.
Civil society responses
Civil society movements are increasingly organising on a global scale to address these challenges. These movements take different approaches:
- Some focus on protest and demonstration
- Others concentrate on educating people worldwide about the need for different ways of living
Key Points to Remember:
- State break-ups like Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union created new conflicts and challenged globalisation
- Ethnic cleansing emerged as a horrific new form of warfare during the Balkan conflicts (1990-1997)
- Huntington's "Clash of Civilisations" theory predicted conflicts between Christianity and Islam would shape the post-Cold War world
- 9/11 (September 11, 2001) marked Al-Qaeda's first major attack on American soil and triggered the global War on Terror
- The War on Terror led to military interventions in Afghanistan (2001), Iraq (2003), and numerous other locations worldwide
- Economic inequality (global apartheid) and environmental challenges represent the next major threats to global stability