The End of the Cold War – The Events of 1989 (Grade 12 NSC Matric History): Revision Notes
Angola, Namibia, and Moving Towards a New South Africa
The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale: A turning point in southern African history
The period following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 brought dramatic changes to southern Africa. However, the foundations for these changes had already been laid through events in Angola, particularly the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale between 1987 and 1988.
The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale is often overlooked in discussions about apartheid's end, but it was crucial in forcing South Africa to reconsider its regional military strategy. Understanding this battle helps explain why the apartheid government suddenly became more willing to negotiate.
Background to the conflict
For decades, America had pressured South Africa over its illegal occupation of Namibia (then South West Africa). This 70-year-old conflict had remained unresolved, but the changing global situation after 1989 created new opportunities for negotiation.
The battle emerged from Angola's ongoing civil war, which had been raging for 27 years since the country's independence in 1975. This conflict had become deeply connected to the Cold War, with various international powers supporting different factions.
Key players in the Angolan conflict
The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale involved several important groups:
- UNITA (União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola): A rebel faction led by Jonas Savimbi
- MPLA (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho): The ruling government faction led by President José Eduardo dos Santos
- Cuban troops: Supporting the MPLA government since 1975
- SADF (South African Defence Force): Supporting UNITA against the government
- FAPLA: The official Angolan government army
Remember that this was essentially a proxy war - the Cold War superpowers (USA and USSR) were fighting through their local allies rather than directly confronting each other. South Africa supported the US-backed UNITA, while Cuba supported the Soviet-backed MPLA government.
The battle unfolds (July 1987 - May 1988)
The conflict began in July 1987 when fighting broke out at Cuito Cuanavale in south-eastern Angola. Initially, this appeared to be just another clash in the long-running civil war between UNITA and the MPLA government.
By November 1987, the SADF had achieved significant success, driving back FAPLA forces and positioning themselves to potentially destroy the government troops entirely. However, the situation changed dramatically when Cuba's leader, Fidel Castro, made a crucial decision.
Timeline of the Battle: The Turning Point
July 1987: Fighting begins at Cuito Cuanavale
November 1987: SADF achieves major victories, FAPLA forces in retreat
Castro's Decision: Without consulting Soviet allies, sends elite Cuban troops and pilots
Cuban Intervention: Superior Russian MiG aircraft give Cubans air superiority
May 1988: Battle ends with SADF forced to withdraw, balance of power shifted
Without consulting his Soviet allies, Castro sent some of his best troops and pilots to counter the South African advance. The Cubans brought superior aircraft (Russian MiGs), which gave them a decisive advantage over the SADF forces.
This Cuban intervention reinforced the FAPLA troops and pushed back both UNITA and the SADF. The battle continued for six months until May 1988, but Castro's move had fundamentally changed the balance of power in the region.
Outcomes of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
Immediate consequences for South Africa
The battle exposed that the SADF had lost its long-standing position of military strength in southern Angola. This was primarily because the Cubans possessed superior aircraft and air power, which South Africa could not match.
This military defeat was particularly shocking for the apartheid government because the SADF had been considered one of the most powerful military forces in Africa. The Cuban intervention demonstrated that South Africa could no longer dominate the region through military might alone.
These circumstances forced the apartheid government to reconsider its entire regional strategy and seek peace in Angola while also agreeing to grant independence to Namibia.
The negotiation process
Following their military setback, South African officials began a series of crucial negotiations:
- Meetings with the United States: Seeking American support for a negotiated settlement
- Discussions with Cuban representatives: Addressing the future of Cuban troops in Angola
- Talks with the Angolan government: Resolving the disputed territory issue of South West Africa (Namibia)
The Peace Accord of 1988
These negotiations resulted in a comprehensive agreement:
- Cuban withdrawal: Cuba agreed to withdraw all its forces from Angola, which was seen as a Cold War victory for the USA
- South African withdrawal: SA agreed to withdraw its own forces, saving the apartheid government from further military embarrassment
- Namibian independence: The apartheid government finally agreed to grant independence to Namibia
The Peace Accord reflecting these agreements was signed in New York on 22 December 1988, eleven months before the Berlin Wall fell. Namibian independence was formally granted on 21 March 1990.
Nelson Mandela's assessment
The significance of these events was later captured by Nelson Mandela, who said: "Cuito Cuanavale was the turning point for the liberation of our continent – and of my people – from the scourge of apartheid."
Mandela's quote highlights how events in Angola directly influenced South African domestic politics. The military defeat in Angola convinced the apartheid government that they needed to find a political solution rather than relying on military force.
FW de Klerk as a reformer
An unlikely reformer emerges
South Africa's official representative at the Namibian Independence celebrations was the man who would formally end apartheid: FW de Klerk, who had become SA's new president after succeeding PW Botha just a few months earlier.
De Klerk's background seemed unlikely to produce a reformer. He came from a family with a strong history in National Party politics, and there was little in his past to suggest he would dismantle the apartheid system.
However, historical experience shows that leaders with strong party connections, like De Klerk and Gorbachev, can often make the biggest changes in society. This happens because citizens trust them more than they do other politicians.
Students often ask why De Klerk, coming from a strong apartheid background, would choose to dismantle the system. The key factor was that the changing international situation (end of Cold War) and military defeats like Cuito Cuanavale made apartheid unsustainable. De Klerk recognised that controlled reform was better than violent collapse.
Early reforms and changes
Shortly after becoming president in September 1989, De Klerk began implementing significant changes:
- Cabinet restructuring: He removed hardliners who had been strong supporters of the Cold War thinking that had dominated his predecessor's policies
- Allowing protests: Despite the state of emergency still being in effect, De Klerk permitted protest marches to take place
The Cape Town march of September 1989
The first significant protest occurred in Cape Town on 13 September 1989. This march witnessed several anti-apartheid leaders, including Archbishop Desmond Tutu, marching for peace. This event signalled a new openness in the political system.
Releasing political prisoners
A month later, De Klerk took an even more significant step by releasing prisoners from Robben Island. These releases included Walter Sisulu, who was Nelson Mandela's friend and a long-standing political colleague.
The historic meeting with Mandela
De Klerk and Mandela finally met on 13 December 1989, just over a month after the Berlin Wall came down. Their initial talks focused on a document that Mandela had sent to the new president. Although the meeting was reportedly tense, it represented a good start because both leaders wanted to end apartheid.
De Klerk's historic speech of 2 February 1990
The big announcement
The most significant public step came on 2 February 1990, when FW de Klerk opened parliament and delivered his famous speech announcing three major changes:
The Three Historic Announcements of 2 February 1990
1. Political organisations unbanned
- The ANC, PAC, and SACP were no longer banned
- Several other minor political groups also unbanned
2. Political prisoners to be released
- All prisoners from these organisations would be freed
- This specifically included Nelson Mandela
3. State of Emergency restrictions lifted
- Media restrictions removed
- Organisations like the UDF could operate freely
The symbolic importance
These events signalled the end of the Cold War's long hold over South African politics. Communism was no longer perceived as a threat, which had been the apartheid government's primary justification for repressive policies.
The timing is crucial here - the Berlin Wall had fallen just months earlier in November 1989, and the Soviet Union was clearly collapsing. This meant that the apartheid government could no longer use the "communist threat" to justify their policies to Western allies.
Reactions to the speech
The announcement produced mixed reactions across the country:
- The ANC in exile (based in Zambia) were highly suspicious of De Klerk's speech, thinking that his promise to release Nelson Mandela was merely a trick
- Other South Africans worried that unbanning the ANC and SACP would increase the level of violence within the country
However, despite these concerns, the speech was a signal that South Africans were going to seek a peaceful solution to all that had previously divided them.
Mandela's release
De Klerk's promises were fulfilled when the speech was formally completed nine days later on 11 February 1990. On this historic date, Nelson Mandela was released from prison after being detained for 27 years.
The nine-day gap between De Klerk's announcement and Mandela's actual release was deliberate - it allowed time for preparations and security arrangements, and also demonstrated that De Klerk was serious about his commitments.
The challenging transition ahead
A difficult but determined path
The years ahead for both Mandela and De Klerk would not be easy. However, during the country's search for democracy, neither gave up on their determination to see an outcome that would be acceptable both to South Africans and the international community.
South Africa rejoins the world
Four years later, South Africa re-joined the world community, which was now very different following the end of the Cold War. The apartheid system had finally been dismantled, and the country was ready to take its place in the new world order.
Key Points to Remember:
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The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale (1987-1988) was the turning point that forced South Africa to negotiate, as Cuban intervention exposed the SADF's military weaknesses
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The Peace Accord of December 1988 led to Cuban and South African withdrawal from Angola and Namibian independence in March 1990
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FW de Klerk's reforms from 1989 included removing hardliners, allowing protests, and releasing political prisoners, culminating in his historic speech of 2 February 1990
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The unbanning of political organisations and Mandela's release on 11 February 1990 marked the beginning of South Africa's transition to democracy
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The end of the Cold War removed the communist threat justification for apartheid, enabling peaceful negotiations between former enemies