The Initial Consolidation of Nazi Power, 1933–34 (HSC SSCE Modern History): Revision Notes

The Initial Consolidation of Nazi Power, 1933–34

Hitler's appointment as Chancellor

On 30 January 1933, the Nazi Party achieved what seemed impossible. A political party that had received less than 3 per cent of the vote in the spring of 1928 had now gained control of the German government. Hitler's appointment as Chancellor triggered wild celebrations among Nazi supporters. Former party members who had left began returning, and the SA (Sturmabteilung, or Brownshirts) held torchlight parades across Germany.

The three Nazi positions were:

• Adolf Hitler as Chancellor
• Hermann Goering as Reich Commissar for the Ministry of the Interior of Prussia
• Wilhelm Frick as Minister of the Interior (giving him control over the police for Germany as a whole)

Franz von Papen, a conservative politician, was appointed Vice-Chancellor. The conservatives believed they could control Hitler and use him to drum up popular support whilst making the real political decisions themselves.

Gleichschaltung: the Nazification of Germany

Once in power, the Nazis implemented their policy of Gleichschaltung. This German term translates as 'coordination' or 'consolidation' of control, but it really meant the systematic Nazification of German politics and society. The aim was to create a situation where all of German society would respond to instructions from the Nazi leadership, embodied by Hitler.

This process worked in two ways. It was not simply imposed from above by the government. Instead, enthusiastic Nazis throughout Germany took initiative at the local level, infiltrating and taking over their communities. This grassroots enthusiasm combined with top-down directives to transform German society.

Hitler's initial strategy

Initially, Hitler acted cautiously. He did not want to alarm anyone or create the impression that a Nazi coup had taken place. He feared that President Hindenburg might change his mind about the appointment, so he behaved carefully in Cabinet meetings. The conservatives, particularly von Papen, believed Hitler would simply be a popular figurehead whilst they retained real power.

However, Hitler was determined on two key political decisions:

1. The Reichstag must be dissolved
2. New elections must be called

Von Papen reluctantly agreed to new elections scheduled for 5 March 1933, despite concerns that this would give the NSDAP an opportunity to win a majority and govern alone.

Early moves against opposition

Before the election campaign began, the Nazis moved to restrict their main political opposition, the Communist Party (KPD). The atmosphere in Germany was tense, with fears of civil war and a possible Communist uprising against the Nazis.

Emergency decree of 4 February 1933

The Communists called for a general strike on 31 January, the day after Hitler's appointment. Hitler used this as justification to persuade Hindenburg to issue an emergency decree that took effect on 4 February. This decree, issued 'for the protection of the German people', gave Hitler the power to:

• Ban political meetings of rival parties
• Close down newspapers of political opponents, especially the Communists

Prussian decree of 5 February 1933

On 5 February 1933, another emergency decree dissolved all elected bodies in Prussia (a major German state). All power was transferred to the new national government. This was crucial because it placed the government in charge of the judiciary and police throughout Prussia. Fourteen police chiefs in Prussia were forced to resign and were replaced by Nazi supporters and conservatives. Local and regional officials were gradually forced out.

The Reichstag Fire

On the evening of 27-28 February 1933, a dramatic event changed the course of German history. In the middle of the night, the Reichstag building in Berlin caught fire.

The Nazis immediately claimed this was the beginning of a Communist revolution. However, police found only one person in the burning building: a Dutchman named Martinus van der Lubbe who smelled strongly of kerosene. Van der Lubbe was mentally deficient and had some loose connections to the Dutch Communist Party, but investigators could find no links to the German Communists.

The Reichstag Fire Decree

In the middle of the night, the Nazis drafted the 'Reichstag Fire Decree' for the protection of the people and the state, ostensibly 'to guard against Communist acts of violence endangering the state'. This decree fundamentally transformed German governance by:

• Ending all civil rights guaranteed by the Weimar Constitution
• Abolishing freedom of the press
• Removing freedom of expression
• Eliminating freedom of association
• Ending the secrecy of mail and telephone communications

Crackdown on opposition

On 2 March, Hermann Goering, Germany's chief law enforcement officer, made the Nazi objective clear: 'to expunge the pestilence of communism, and all along the line, we are moving on to the attack'.

Within 48 hours of the Reichstag fire, hundreds of top Communist officials were arrested and imprisoned. The police targeted anyone they wanted, anyone they believed might be connected to communism. Social Democrats were also arrested, particularly mid-level party bureaucrats, though not the top leaders. As Goering stated, 'We'll cut them all off at the knees'.

The March 1933 election

The election on 5 March took place in an atmosphere of intimidation. The Nazis were running against a left-wing opposition that had been severely weakened by arrests and harassment of party members and leaders.

Despite these advantages, the NSDAP failed to win an outright majority. The results were:

• NSDAP: 44 per cent
• Conservative parties (allied with von Papen): 8 per cent
• Combined Nazi-conservative coalition: 52 per cent (a majority)

Although the NSDAP did not achieve a majority on its own, it successfully banned the Communist Party from taking their seats, consolidating their control over the decision-making process.

The Enabling Act

On 21 March 1933, Hitler was formally sworn in as Chancellor in an elaborate ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam. This location and ceremony were carefully chosen for symbolic reasons. Hindenburg attended in his military uniform from World War I, representing the high command of the German Army. Hitler deliberately wore civilian clothes and bowed respectfully to Hindenburg, conveying the message that he wanted to restore traditional German honour. This was designed to show that the NSDAP was not a party of revolutionary radicals but rather represented German traditional values.

In his speech accepting the position of Chancellor, Hitler called for a new law: the Enabling Act. This act would give the government power to enact legislation for a five-year period without requiring Hindenburg's permission under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution.

With the Communists banned, Hitler had the two-thirds majority in the Reichstag needed to pass the Enabling Act on 21 March. This has been called the 'suicide note of the German Parliament' because it effectively gave Hitler complete legal authority in Germany. The impression of legality was important for Nazi consolidation of power.

Further consolidation measures in 1933

Over the following six months, the Nazis aggressively pursued their Gleichschaltung policy. The speed and thoroughness of this transformation was remarkable, as institution after institution fell under Nazi control.

Control of labour unions

The Nazis declared May Day (1 May) a national holiday to celebrate German labour. That same night, storm troopers seized union offices across the country. Goering used this as justification to argue that Germany needed greater protection and an auxiliary police force to deal with the turmoil.

The SA as auxiliary police

All over Germany, SA members were sworn in as an auxiliary police force. In addition to their swastika armband on the left arm, they wore a white armband on the right to show they were now officially police. This legitimised SA terror and violence against perceived enemies of the state.

Banning of political parties

On 14 July 1933, the Nazis introduced a law banning all political parties other than the NSDAP. Germany officially became a one-party state.

Control of institutions and media

One by one, key institutions fell under National Socialist control:

• The press
• Radio broadcasting
• Schools and universities
• The Gestapo (Nazi secret police, established in November 1933)

Concordat with the Vatican

In a significant political victory, the NSDAP signed a concordat (agreement) with the Vatican. This was extremely important because Catholics represented the largest potential source of opposition to the regime. In the concordat:

• The Nazis promised not to interfere with the Church or ban its organisations
• In return, the Catholic Church dropped its ban on Nazi Party membership

The SA problem

By the end of 1933, only two potential threats to Nazi power remained: the Army and President Hindenburg himself. For Hitler to fully consolidate power, he needed the support of both the Army and big business. Both groups despised the SA and their aggressive talk about social revolution.

The Night of the Long Knives

On 30 June 1934, Hitler organised the SS (Schutzstaffel, or Blackshirts) to murder SA leaders and other political opponents. This event became known as the Night of the Long Knives.

Hitler recognised that whilst the SA had helped the NSDAP come to power, they had now become a liability. The era of disorder and chaos needed to end. The Night of the Long Knives saw the destruction of the brutal, disorderly SA and its replacement by Hitler's elite bodyguard organisation, the black-uniformed SS.

The purge

The killing operation had the code-name 'Hummingbird'. Targets included:

• Ernst Rohm, the head of the SA (arrested and later killed)
• Other SA leaders
• Conservative political rivals
• Von Papen's secretary and speech writer (both murdered)
• General von Schleicher (former Chancellor who had opposed Hitler's appointment) and his wife (both gunned down)

The official death toll was 74, but over 1,000 people were arrested. The actual number killed remains disputed by historians.

Hitler's justification and public reaction

Hitler explained to the Cabinet and Reichstag that his actions were necessary to prevent a treasonable plot. Public reactions were initially mixed. Many Germans struggled to understand the violence. However, over time, general approval emerged. The SA's violence had been unpopular, and their disorderly conduct had alarmed many ordinary Germans as well as the Army. Their destruction seemed to promise greater stability, which was what many Germans had voted for in the first place.

Death of Hindenburg and Hitler becomes Führer

On 2 August 1934, President Hindenburg died. This removed the final barrier to Hitler's absolute power.

Following Hindenburg's death, Hitler took decisive action:

• He assumed the offices of both President and Chancellor
• The Army swore an oath of allegiance directly to Adolf Hitler personally (not to the Constitution)
• Hitler officially became der Führer (the Leader) of all Germany

The totalitarian state achieved

By the summer of 1934, the Nazis had established the foundations of a totalitarian state. A totalitarian state is one that claims complete control over the individual. The NSDAP now had total control with no sources of organised opposition remaining:

• All political parties except the NSDAP were banned
• The trade unions were destroyed
• The press and radio were controlled
• The SA had been neutralised
• The Army had sworn loyalty to Hitler personally
• The Church had agreed to non-interference
• The Gestapo provided the mechanism for terror and control

The Nazis, a party with totalitarian aspirations, now had the power structure to implement their vision for Germany.