The Nature and Course of the Revolution (HSC SSCE Modern History): Revision Notes

The Nature and Course of the Revolution

Introduction

The Cuban Revolution was a transformative conflict that overthrew the oppressive Batista dictatorship and brought Fidel Castro to power in 1959. This revolution fundamentally changed Cuba's political landscape and had far-reaching implications for Latin America. Understanding the nature and course of this revolution requires examining the key movement that led it, the factors contributing to its success, and the military campaign that ultimately defeated Batista's forces.

The 26th of July Movement

Formation and early activities

The 26th of July Movement was the revolutionary organisation led by Fidel Castro. The name derived from the failed attempt to storm the Moncada Barracks on 26 July 1953, which, despite its failure, became a rallying point for Cuban revolutionaries.

After his release from prison, Castro immediately resumed opposition activities. He wrote newspaper articles criticising the regime and spoke at demonstrations. However, his personal safety was constantly threatened. Police surveillance and the ever-present risk of assassination by Batista's agents convinced Castro that his options in Cuba were limited. Following the example of José Martí, Cuba's independence hero, Castro determined to launch an invasion from foreign soil.

Exile in Mexico (1955-1956)

Castro left Cuba for Mexico on 7 July 1955. It would be 17 months before he returned to his homeland. Life in Mexico proved extremely difficult for the revolutionaries:

• The movement had virtually no money
• Mexican authorities continually harassed them
• They lived under constant threat of expulsion from the country

To improve their financial situation, Castro embarked on a fundraising tour of the United States. He visited Cuban emigré communities in New York, Philadelphia, and Miami, holding meetings and delivering speeches. This tour proved successful, raising several thousand dollars for the movement.

Preparation for invasion

By March 1956, preparations for the invasion were underway:

• The men purchased weapons
• A Cuban veteran of the Spanish Civil War trained them in essential skills: cleaning and reassembling guns, making bombs, and producing Molotov cocktails (firebombs)
• Castro's militant stance attracted growing numbers of supporters in Cuba
• Support for the 26th of July Movement became increasingly visible, with cries of support heard at political rallies and the number "26" painted on walls across the country

In November 1956, Castro received a crucial financial boost of $40,000 from Prio Socarras, a sympathetic Cuban opposition leader and former president. This money was used to purchase the Granma, a weatherbeaten yacht that would carry the revolutionaries back to Cuba.

The Granma landing

In late November 1956, Castro's headquarters were raided by Mexican authorities collaborating with Batista's secret police. Arms were confiscated and more than 25 men arrested. This forced Castro's hand. On the stormy night of 25 November, Castro and his men crowded onto the Granma and began their journey towards Cuba.

The plan was to land in Oriente Province on Cuba's southern tip, coordinating with a simultaneous uprising by fellow revolutionaries in Santiago de Cuba. They hoped these combined actions would trigger a national revolt to topple the Batista regime.

However, the landing went badly:

• The Granma landed on 2 December, several miles off course
• The 30 November uprising in Santiago had already been crushed
• The military had been alerted to Castro's arrival
• A government aeroplane spotted them as they waded ashore
• They were forced to abandon most of their supplies on the beach

Regrouping in the Sierra Maestra

Despite this catastrophic beginning, the revolution survived. On 17 December, Castro and two companions reached the isolated farmhouse of Ramon Perez, a peasant whose brother had joined the movement months earlier. Over successive days, surviving members of the Granma expedition straggled in, including Raúl Castro, Che Guevara, and Camilo Cienfuegos.

Although only 17 of the original 82 rebels had made it to the Sierra Maestra mountains, Castro remained optimistic. He famously declared:

"We are in the Sierras. The days of the dictatorship are numbered."

Main factors leading to the success of the Cuban Revolution

The unpopularity of the Batista regime

The Batista regime was deeply unpopular for several interconnected reasons that created fertile ground for revolution.

Political repression: The government used terror to destroy any opposition. Key repressive measures included:

• Abolishing Cuba's constitution
• Dissolving Cuba's congress (parliament)
• Outlawing the Cuban Communist Party
• Using violence and intimidation against opponents

Social and economic inequality: Despite Cuba's relatively high national wealth, extreme inequality persisted:

• Wealth was not equally distributed
• There were stark extremes of wealth and poverty
• The regime only enjoyed support from old politicians, the wealthy, and Americans
• The majority of Cubans experienced little benefit from the nation's prosperity

Failed policies: The Batista government's methods failed to work in the best interests of Cuba. Instead, policies favoured elite interests and foreign (particularly American) economic control.

The appeal of Fidel Castro and guerrilla warfare

Castro's success was built on several key factors that distinguished him from previous opposition leaders.

Strong leadership: Castro demonstrated exceptional leadership skills. His personal qualities included:

• A compelling vision for social justice
• Promises of democratic reform
• Commitment to ending endemic corruption
• Focus on national independent interests
• Ability to inspire and motivate followers

Guerrilla warfare tactics: The combination of urban resistance to Batista with successful guerrilla warfare in the mountains proved decisive. This dual approach enabled Castro and his followers to successfully overthrow the Batista government.

Popular support: Unlike traditional Latin American coups d'état, Castro's revolution was rooted in popular support, particularly from Cuba's rural poor.

The nature of guerrilla warfare and the activities of revolutionaries

Revolutionary significance

The triumph of the Cuban people over the Batista regime changed authoritarian beliefs about population control in Latin America. It demonstrated that ordinary people could free themselves from oppressive government through guerrilla warfare.

Guerrilla warfare tactics and peasant support

Guerrilla warfare depended heavily on power and support gained from the people. Castro's approach contrasted sharply with the customary coup d'état rebellions of Latin American politics.

Living conditions in the Sierra Maestra: In 1956, the rebels found themselves in Cuba's roughest, wildest, and poorest area. The region's characteristics included:

• Largely illiterate residents
• Tiny wooden shacks with earth floors
• No indoor plumbing
• No electricity

Building peasant support: Initially suspicious, the peasants slowly began to trust the strangers and support Castro. They:

• Sold supplies to the rebels
• Provided information about water sources and other necessities
• Offered local knowledge crucial to survival

Castro's leadership style: Castro and his men lived in Spartan conditions, with little food or sleep and only the companionship of fellow guerrillas. Castro shared all hardships but pushed himself harder than anyone else. His ability to march for hours without rest earned him the nickname el Caballo (the horse). He travelled throughout the mountains, making contacts with peasants and winning allies.

The relationship between Castro and the peasants proved decisive to the effectiveness of guerrilla warfare against Batista's forces.

Key revolutionary figures

Camilo Cienfuegos (1932-1959): Before Batista's downfall in 1958, four men epitomised the revolution's spirit to Cuban people: the Castro brothers, Che Guevara, and Camilo Cienfuegos. Cienfuegos emerged as Castro's most trusted and competent ally during the two-year guerrilla war in the Sierra Mountains. He rapidly rose to the rank of Commandante and led one of two legendary columns that successfully occupied Santa Clara on 31 December 1958.

In the early stages of Castro's government, Cienfuegos became Army Chief of Staff and Castro's loyal right-hand man. However, just months after the revolution, his plane vanished during a night flight from Camaguey to Havana, and he was presumed dead. Cienfuegos is revered in Cuba as a revolutionary hero, with landmarks, monuments, and annual celebrations commemorating his role.

The battle of Santa Clara

One of the most significant moments in the guerrilla campaign came in the battle of Santa Clara. The two legendary figures of Castro's rebel army – Ernesto Che Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos – commanded the two guerrilla columns that attacked Santa Clara, Cuba's third largest city and capital of Las Villas Province.

Che Guevara's tactics: Guevara's approach comprised three key elements, which he called the secrets of guerrilla warfare:

1. Constant mobility
2. Constant distrust
3. Constant vigilance

Local population involvement: The local population proved instrumental in restricting Batista's forces by:

• Creating blockades throughout the cities
• Halting and looting supply trains

The battle of Santa Clara was the final fight in the Cuban Revolution, where rebel forces triumphed over Batista's army, demonstrating the effectiveness of guerrilla tactics combined with popular support.

Key events of 1958

The year 1958 proved decisive in the Cuban Revolution. A series of military events gradually weakened Batista's position and strengthened the revolutionary forces.

March: US arms embargo

Event: The United States suspended the supply of arms to Batista's forces. However, President Eisenhower continued to support Batista as he distrusted potential revolutionary governments.

Significance: This severely weakened Batista's position as he relied heavily on US military aid to fight the rebels. The Cuban air force rapidly lost its power as planes could not be repaired without spare parts from the United States.

May: Operation Verano

Event: Batista launched a new military offensive called Operation Verano. He sent 10,000 soldiers supported by Sherman tanks to Oriente Province to crush the rebels.

Significance: Although outnumbered, Castro's rebel army defeated Batista's men because of their superior knowledge of guerrilla warfare and the superiority of their intelligence network.

July: Battle of El Jigue

Event: One of the most important battles occurred at El Jigue from 11 to 21 July. Castro's forces defeated an entire battalion.

Significance: This was a humiliating defeat for Batista. When Castro realised that Batista's forces were commanded by Major Jose Quevedo, a former university classmate, he proposed a ceasefire. Quevedo's men had lost the heart to fight, and his 146 men surrendered, laying down their arms. The guerrillas gained a large cache of weapons.

August: Army retreat

Event: On 7 August, a demoralised and confused army retreated to the garrisons, never to return to the Sierra Maestra.

Significance: Batista's army was in disarray. They could not handle the torrential rains of the hurricane season, forcing the government to end its offensive. This inspired Castro to plan a counteroffensive, which he hoped would lead to a victorious drive to the capital city of Havana.

October: Advance to Las Villas

Event: By mid-October, Che Guevara's forces had reached Las Villas after a 40-day campaign. They joined with other revolutionary groups and delivered one of the war's most decisive military thrusts.

Significance: Together, the rebel groups launched an offensive that included major efforts to cut roads and link the province with the rest of the island.

November: Siege of Santiago and Guisa

Event: Fidel and Raúl Castro's command stayed in Oriente and moved to capture Santiago. On 20 November, a squad of 180 rebels under Castro's direction moved against the strategic garrison at Guisa de Miranda.

Significance: The threat of rebel ambushes had completely stopped traffic along the central highway. The roads were littered with skeletons of army trucks and jeeps. Telephone wires were down, and in many provinces cities were without electricity.

December: Final victories

Event: By 6 December, the army had suffered over 250 casualties and decided to abandon the garrison. By mid-December, Guevara's forces controlled all of Las Villas province. On 18 December, they attacked Santa Clara. On 31 December, Santa Clara fell to Guevara's troops.

Significance: These events demonstrated the significance of Castro's psychological warfare and his elaborate set of ambushes, complete with mines and traps. The United States realised the Batista army was crumbling and sent William Pawley, an American businessman with extensive interests in Cuba, to try to persuade Batista to resign.

Fidelistas come to power

Batista's flight and the collapse of the regime

When Santa Clara fell, Batista finally realised his situation was hopeless. At 3:00 am on 1 January 1959, he and a handful of close associates boarded an aeroplane for the Dominican Republic, leaving Cuba for good.

News of his departure spread quickly as telephone lines jammed with people trying to call friends. In the early dawn, thousands of people walked the streets of Havana in intense excitement. Students gathered at the university with the red and black flags of the 26th of July Movement.

By evening, however, the city's mood turned darker. Crowds attacked offices and buildings that symbolised the Batista regime, and angry rioters looted the houses of Batista officials.

Castro's entry into Santiago

When Castro learned of Batista's flight, he prepared to move on Santiago. The city's military commander, however, surrendered without a battle, and Castro entered the city in peace.

From Santiago, Castro broadcast an emergency appeal to the people of Havana, urging them to refrain from violence and vigilante justice. He promised that rebel forces would move into Cuba's cities to restore order and prevent a counter-revolution by the still relatively intact Batista army. Castro declared:

The dictatorship has collapsed, but that does not mean the revolution has triumphed. Revolution, yes! Military coup, no!

Occupation of Havana

Castro ordered Guevara and Cienfuegos to march to Havana. On 2 January, they occupied the army garrisons. All over Cuba, revolutionary troops took possession of:

• Government buildings
• Police stations
• Radio stations
• Military installations

At the same time:

• Ex-Batista officials and policemen were captured and jailed to await trial
• People imprisoned by Batista as political criminals were released

Castro's triumphant journey

Castro set out from Santiago on 2 January, turning Cuba's highway into a 500-mile-long parade. Thousands of people lined the streets carrying signs reading Gracias Fidel (Thank you, Fidel). Castro reached Havana on 8 January, where more than half a million Cubans waited to greet him at the Presidential Palace.

As Castro spoke to the crowds, two white doves (symbols of peace) were released. One flew to Castro's shoulder, where it remained as he delivered his speech. He declared:

We cannot ever become dictators. Those who do not have the people with them must resort to being dictators. We have the love of the people, and because of that love, we will never turn away from our principles.

It was clear that Castro had won his battle with Batista. The rebels remained in remarkable control, providing people with a vision of hope and optimism after the Batista dictatorship.

A New York Times correspondent described Castro's triumphant arrival in Havana, addressing the large crowd of 500,000 cheering Cubans:

He seemed to weave a hypnotic net over his listeners making them believe in his own concept of the functions of government and the destiny of Cuba.