Welcome to the Revolution (HSC SSCE Modern History): Revision Notes

Welcome to the Revolution

Introduction to the Digital Revolution

The invention of digital technologies marked one of the greatest shifts in modern human life. Moving from analogue forms of technology to digital formats kick-started an unprecedented acceleration of human capability. Within less than 30 years of the internet's arrival, a 13-year-old with a Facebook account could instantly interact with anyone, anywhere, at any time on the planet.

The transition from physical media (like tape) and electromagnetic waves to digital formats (like fibre optic cables and Wi-Fi) meant that our appetite for information could be satisfied instantaneously. This shift has had enormous effects on human life, both positive and negative.

The democratisation of media production

The Digital Revolution fundamentally changed who could create and share media content. The days when media production was controlled by a wealthy few are well behind us. Today, anyone with a smartphone can have a significant impact on the world.

Consider today's popular YouTubers. These digital content creators often work alone with just a smartphone or simple camera, posting vlogs that reach audiences of millions. Governments and major film studios could only dream of reaching and influencing so many people in previous eras. The Digital Revolution has placed control of public discussion directly in the hands of ordinary people – the digital technology natives.

Media control in the early twentieth century

In the early days of twentieth-century media production, creating films and television programmes was expensive and difficult. It often required support from powerful governments combined with media companies whose interests were closely aligned. As a result, many films and television programmes reinforced ideas and values that these powerful groups considered important.

The transformation of news production

One of the key ways people understand the world around them is through the news. News media help people make informed decisions about their surroundings. However, the advent of digital television channels in the late 1980s created opportunities for a huge array of programming. Corporations and institutions that owned television production moved audiences away from a 30-minute broadcast at dinnertime to a 24-hour cycle of constant news.

The role of journalism in democracy

In developed democracies, news media play a vital role in informing the public about the actions of their elected leaders. Journalists should investigate, critique and provide checks and balances to ensure those in power do not abuse it. The role of the journalist is simple: report the truth and let the audience decide.

Case study: Watergate and investigative journalism

Before the advent of digital technologies, two young reporters from the Washington Post, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, demonstrated the power of investigative journalism. They began following a trail of suspicious activity behind the 1972 presidential candidate Richard Nixon's re-election campaign, particularly events surrounding a break-in at the Watergate Hotel (the headquarters of Nixon's political opponents).

The 24-hour news cycle

In the modern world of digital news media, the careful, methodical approach of Watergate journalism is not always possible. Digital technology and audience demand dramatically shifted the news production process.

With the increase of television stations in the 1990s in Australia and the US, whole channels were dedicated to presenting news 24 hours a day. Content that previously took up 30 minutes of air time now needed to fill 23.5 extra hours each day. With cameras constantly rolling, there was less time for methodical news gathering. News had to go to air as soon as it became available.

The arrival of digital technology

New media technologies have developed at such a rapid rate that several new forms may exist today that hadn't been considered possible when this content was originally written. However, it remains vital to understand the transition from old to new media to evaluate shifts in production methods and audience attitudes and behaviours.

From vinyl to digital music

The transition from old to new media can be traced back to the gradual shift from analogue to digital formats. Consider music:

Vinyl records era: New music was a long-anticipated event for fans. Recordings were listened to repeatedly, as releases were often few and far between.

Cassettes (1970s): The availability of cassettes caused concern within the music industry because fans could copy vinyl music to tape and avoid paying directly for music.

The Walkman (1979): This compact tape player with headphones could go anywhere the audience wanted. Music became portable. Music was on the move.

Film and television distribution

Film and television audiences endured long waits for their favourite programmes because physical rolls of film had to be transported around the globe. While these rolls were easy to mass-produce, they were delicate and could only be handled by those trained in projection.

Australian audiences often had to wait long periods before seeing films and television hits from the United Kingdom and America – sometimes a full six months behind the country of origin. This geographical isolation meant Australians were often "behind" in catching up with artistic trends from Europe and the US.

Binary code: the foundation of digital technology

A dramatic shift came with the commercial use of binary data codes to transmit information. Binary data consists of long sequences of ones and zeros that create digital files.

Digital data does not degenerate in the same way as its analogue ancestors. It can have an infinite life, remaining exactly as it was created. The quality and speed of media production after the commercial use of digital files in the late 1980s and 1990s meant music and film could be sold on CD and DVD.

Creators of media texts still maintained some control over their products, but audiences became more adept at manipulating, copying and sharing digital data in new ways.

The internet revolution

The arrival of the internet in the mid-1990s changed everything.

Origins and early development

The internet was originally designed in the 1950s to protect sensitive military data in case of nuclear attack. For a long time, it existed as little more than a bewildering concept understood by only a handful of computer scientists and mathematicians. Its potential appeared limited to the capacity of the hulking computers that used it.

Personal computers and internet growth

As companies like Microsoft, IBM and Apple developed personal computers (PCs) that could be used in family homes, internet growth soon followed. Suddenly, all the binary data that made up digital media files (photographs, text, videos and music) could be shared locally and eventually globally.

This gave audiences more control. Peer-to-peer file sharing, while slow and difficult, enabled digital files to be shared globally. Audiences were not waiting so patiently to access their favourite music. Internet piracy was an immediate consequence.

The early internet experience

In its early years, much content on the internet was created by those with the ability to write code. The internet was initially a novelty. Early connections through dial-up services connected to home phones meant sending an email was a lengthy process – you could click Send, make a cup of coffee, clean the house, walk the dog, and then check if the computer had sent the message!

However, internet use gathered pace and the popularity of search engines brought all available knowledge readily to hand. The process of finding information (traditionally called research) has since been replaced by a brand name: Google.

Web 2.0: the user-generated internet

The advent of Web 2.0 technologies is central to understanding the Digital Revolution. This concept is complex but somewhat easy to explain.

Web 2.0 refers to the moment when faster broadband internet speeds arrived in users' homes, which coincided with the arrival of the user-generated internet. Think back to earlier discussions about how a few powerful people controlled media production. Web 2.0 platforms like YouTube, Facebook, Wikipedia, Instagram and Twitter represent a fundamental shift that placed much of the media and means of production in the hands of the audience.

Never before have ordinary people had such power. The voices of a powerful few are often drowned out by the sheer volume of competing messages from the many.

The impact of Web 2.0 on the music industry

One of the earliest facets of popular culture to feel the effects of digital technology was the music industry.

Metallica versus Napster

In 1999, a young entrepreneur named Shawn Fanning created Napster, essentially a file browser that allowed users to see digital MP3 music files on any computer connected to the service. This was highly illegal.

Music companies had for decades placed legal copyrights on their products to protect them from theft. Napster's growth was so rapid and widespread that the music industry was unsure how to tackle such widespread theft.

The smartphone revolution

The arrival of the smartphone changed everything again. The way we used the internet became a mobile, anywhere and anytime activity. What was previously a static activity at a laptop or home computer became a single-touch exercise when Apple released the iPhone in 2007.

The iPhone's impact

Mobile phone technology was nothing new in 2007. Companies like Blackberry, Nokia and Samsung had already combined phones with colour screens and internet access. However, Apple provided a simple interface that absolutely anyone could use. It sold in the millions and evolved into updated versions that made previous ones obsolete, thus increasing demand and audience dependence on the device.

After 2007, the ability of ordinary people to interact with the world via the internet exploded. With it came a tsunami of private data held, secured and eventually monetised by applications like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and YouTube – the ubiquitous products of iPhone use.

Users could not only consume the internet whilst waiting for food, at the doctor's or during boring family gatherings; they began to create it too.

Smartphone usage patterns

Research from a 2015 study by OFCOM (the independent communication authority of the United Kingdom) revealed striking patterns in digital behaviour:

• Nine out of ten adults were online each day
• 66% of people used smartphones as their primary connection to the internet
• 96% of smartphone users engaged in text messaging, with huge increases in free instant messaging services
• Three-quarters of internet users in the UK had a social media profile
• Only 17% of 16- to 24-year-olds stated they would miss their television in 2015
• For 15- to 34-year-olds, almost 100% used mobile devices for communication, 60% used them to search for content like video and photos, and over 75% used them to create the same content themselves

Politics in the digital age

Nixon versus JFK: the broadcast television era

One of the first American politicians to properly use television was presidential candidate John F Kennedy in the 1960s. While JFK used radio and print to sell his message, these forms limited his ability to appear as more than a mouthpiece for slogans.

Television humanised politics, allowing media audiences to see and hear their leaders talk in real time. In 1960, 87% of American homes (more than 46 million) had televisions, compared to at least 25% in 1956.

JFK was young, handsome and well-spoken. While these qualities could be communicated through print and radio, it was his personality and charm that television could convey. Television made superficial differences very apparent when JFK faced his opponent Richard Nixon, who was not as physically attractive.

The 1960 Presidential Debate

The Presidential Debate on 26 September 1960 was broadcast on television and radio. Research after the event recorded:

• Those who listened to the debate on radio thought Nixon won based on what he said
• The television audience of over 70 million who focused on physical appearance declared Kennedy the winner

Clinton versus Trump: the smartphone era

Fast forward to the 2016 American presidential election. Televised election debates had become fundamental to the electoral process, but the technology allowing audience participation had dramatically changed.

On 26 September 2016, presidential candidates Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump met for their first debate. As the debate began, multiple media forms participated simultaneously:

• Television: Traditional debate format watched live by millions
• Twitter: Almost 6 million tweets mentioned or tagged either candidate during the debate, with journalists, commentators, politicians and ordinary citizens posting thoughts and retweeting others
• YouTube: Three official live streams from Bloomberg TV, the Washington Post and Telemundo, plus independent streaming with public commentary
• Online news: Live commentary from journalists across multiple platforms
• Facebook: Live streams with open comments and political debate between supporters
• Memes: Text on images created and shared via platforms like Reddit and Facebook in real-time response to candidates' statements
• Print media: Journalists recorded the debate for extended commentary in the next day's papers

Echo chambers and social media politics

Throughout the 2016 campaign, social media accessed via smartphones took a prominent role in public debate. In the Nixon and JFK era, audiences debated with friends and co-workers using opinions of journalists who were generally free and independent enough to judge either candidate fairly. Voters were expected to consider all options carefully before voting.

In the 2016 campaign, the nature of audience involvement completely altered how candidates and supporters attempted to sway voters. The sheer volume of available technology and media meant a bottomless pit of views, opinions, videos, posts and blogs were available to those willing to search.

Twitter and political discourse

Twitter provided opportunities for audiences to share informed opinions, but this was hindered by the behaviour of both Clinton and Trump, who used the platform to belittle and "troll" each other. In response to one of Trump's frequent attacks, Clinton responded with a common trolling retort: "delete your account."

The limitation of 140 characters on the micro-blogging platform ensured that well-informed and calm political debate was minimal.

Twitterbots

A 2016 Oxford University study examined the source of tweets about the campaign. It found that:

• At least one-fifth of tweets supporting Clinton came from automated accounts
• At least one-third of tweets supporting Trump came from automated accounts

These accounts are not owned or operated by unique individuals but by software programs generating tweets with the intention of getting certain hashtags to trend and dominate discussion on the platform. The value and place of Twitter in this media event must be carefully scrutinised.

The rise of internet memes

A relatively recent phenomenon in the 2016 election, internet memes were closely examined for their influence over political debate.

Used sparingly by political leaders like Clinton, memes were overwhelmingly a tool used by ordinary citizens to exert influence within the political process. Just like tweets, Facebook posts, Snapchats and Instagram photos, political memes of the 2016 campaign were direct examples of ordinary people influencing political debate from the "bottom up."

Usually little more than an extremely simple message in text that either supported or criticised the image it appeared over, memes played an interesting role in changing or reinforcing political opinions during the campaign.