Origins of the Cold War 1945–53 (HSC SSCE Modern History): Revision Notes

Origins of the Cold War 1945–53

Understanding the Cold War

The Cold War was a period of intense political and military tension between two rival superpowers: the United States of America (USA) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Unlike a traditional 'hot war' with direct military conflict, the Cold War was characterised by ideological rivalry, nuclear arms buildup, proxy wars, espionage, and diplomatic confrontation. This dangerous period lasted from approximately 1947 to 1991 and came perilously close to nuclear catastrophe on several occasions.

Key terminology:

• Cold War: A state of geopolitical tension between rival powers that stops short of actual warfare
• Superpower: A nation with dominant influence in international affairs, possessing massive military and economic strength
• Containment: The US strategy to prevent the spread of communism around the world
• Armageddon: Originally a biblical term for a final catastrophic conflict; used to describe potential nuclear annihilation

The wartime alliance and growing tensions

The Big Three

During World War II, three major Allied leaders worked together to defeat Nazi Germany:

• Franklin Roosevelt (USA) - President until his death in April 1945
• Winston Churchill (UK) - Prime Minister until July 1945
• Joseph Stalin (USSR) - Soviet Premier and dictator

These leaders formed the core of a multilateral alliance of 26 nations united against the Axis Powers. However, tensions bubbled beneath the surface throughout the war, particularly concerning post-war arrangements.

Quebec and Hyde Park meetings (1943)

Churchill and Roosevelt met in Canada between 17-24 August 1943. Stalin was invited but could not attend. The two Western leaders discussed strategic matters and, most significantly, held secret discussions about the atomic bomb. This exclusion of Stalin from atomic matters would have profound consequences for post-war relations.

Teheran Conference (November-December 1943)

The first meeting of all three leaders took place in Iran's capital, Teheran, from 28 November to 1 December 1943. Key agreements included:

• British and American commitment to invade Nazi-occupied France by May 1944
• Soviet promise to join the war against Japan after Germany's defeat
• Discussions about the proposed United Nations organisation
• Roosevelt's vision of 'four policemen' (USA, Britain, China, USSR) maintaining world peace

Roosevelt came away optimistic, believing he could work constructively with Stalin. However, this optimism would prove short-lived.

Yalta Conference (February 1945)

The Big Three met at Yalta in Crimea on the Black Sea from 4-11 February 1945, with Nazi Germany's defeat imminent.

Major agreements reached:

• Germany would be divided into four occupation zones (British, American, French, and Soviet)
• Berlin, located within the Soviet zone, would also be split into four sectors
• Stalin agreed to allow free elections in Eastern European countries
• The USSR would join the war against Japan
• The Soviets agreed to participate in the permanent United Nations

Hidden tensions:

Despite the cooperative atmosphere, serious problems lurked beneath:

• Stalin had already gained intelligence about the Manhattan Project (the US atomic bomb programme) through his extensive spy network
• Roosevelt and Churchill deliberately excluded Stalin from atomic discussions
• Each leader prioritised their nation's security over world peace
• Historian Robert Dallek noted that both sides made commitments that were 'rhetoric devoid of firm conviction'

Potsdam Conference (July 1945)

This conference marked a significant shift in the Big Three dynamic. Two new leaders joined Stalin:

• Harry S. Truman replaced Roosevelt, who died on 12 April 1945
• Clement Attlee replaced Churchill, who lost the UK election

Agreements:

• Confirmed Germany's division into four zones
• Berlin would be similarly divided
• Germany would pay reparations

Unresolved issues:

• Peace treaty terms with Germany
• Final border between Russia and Poland
• Enforcement of free elections promise

The atomic bomb issue

The atomic bombing of Japan

The United States dropped atomic bombs on two Japanese cities:

• Hiroshima: 6 August 1945
• Nagasaki: 9 August 1945

Military context:

The decision was primarily military. The US had already conducted massive firebombing raids on Japanese cities, including the March 1945 Tokyo raid that killed 100,000 people - more than died at Hiroshima. By August 1945, about 60 Japanese cities had been devastated by conventional bombing.

Impact on superpower relations:

Stalin viewed the bombings as:

• An act of 'super-barbarity'
• Proof that Japan was already doomed
• A demonstration designed to limit Soviet territorial gains in Asia
• 'A-Bomb blackmail' as American policy

Stalin immediately ordered his scientists to accelerate their atomic programme, declaring: "Hiroshima has shaken the whole world. The balance had been destroyed. That cannot be."

The Baruch Plan (1946)

President Truman understood that America's atomic monopoly could not last. He approved a plan for international control of nuclear weapons through a United Nations agency. Bernard Baruch presented this proposal to the UN Atomic Energy Commission on 14 June 1946.

Key provisions:

• Establishment of an Atomic Development Authority
• UN control of all uranium mining
• UN operation of all nuclear facilities capable of producing weapons
• Nations would surrender ability to build nuclear bombs
• Peaceful nuclear energy use would be permitted

Emerging Cold War tensions

Stalin's Bolshoi Speech (9 February 1946)

Stalin needed to reassert communist ideology and explain away America's superior power. In a speech at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, he:

• Depicted victory in the 'Great Patriotic War' as due to socialism's economic superiority
• Blamed the two world wars on inevitable competition within monopoly capitalism
• Stimulated national solidarity around the Communist Party
• Positioned the USSR defensively against capitalism

The American response was one of alarm. Many feared Stalin was preparing for war against the West. Historian Robert Dallek speculated that Stalin would have been better served by taking a softer line, but the 'unyielding ideologues in the Kremlin' could only think in terms of class struggle.

The Long Telegram (22 February 1946)

George Kennan, a US Embassy official with extensive Moscow experience, was asked for an analysis of Soviet policy. His 8,000-word response became known as the 'Long Telegram'.

Kennan later published his telegram in Foreign Affairs journal in 1947 under the pseudonym 'Mr X'.

Churchill's Iron Curtain Speech (5 March 1946)

At Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, former Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered a landmark speech with President Truman in attendance:

From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe... all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in some cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow.

Churchill called for:

• A 'special relationship' between the UK and USA
• Joint action to counter the Soviet threat
• No sharing of nuclear technology with the Soviets

This speech marked a dramatic shift in how Americans viewed the Soviet Union - from wartime ally to primary threat.

The Truman Doctrine

By 1947, Truman and his advisers had significantly hardened their attitudes towards the USSR. The three events of early 1946 had crystallised American thinking about Soviet intentions and the appropriate response.

The catalyst

Fears that the Soviet Union was interfering in Greece and Turkey, combined with the USSR's failure to withdraw from Iran as promised, prompted decisive action.

Truman's speech to Congress (1947)

Truman requested $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey. In justifying this request, he outlined what became known as the Truman Doctrine:

Key term: Totalitarian - a system of government that is centralised and dictatorial, requiring complete subservience to the state

The Marshall Plan

George Marshall's initiative (5 June 1947)

Secretary of State George C. Marshall called for a comprehensive economic programme to rebuild Europe. The rapid deterioration of European economies in winter 1946-47, combined with rising fears of communist expansion, prompted this ambitious plan.

Key features:

• Massive American financial aid for European reconstruction
• Created new markets for American goods, stimulating the US economy
• Led to resurgence of industrialisation in Western Europe
• Eastern European countries weren't excluded, but Soviet concerns about US economic influence prevented communist bloc participation

Impact:

Churchill hailed it as 'the turning point in the history of the world'. Historian Nicolaus Mills wrote that 'Western Europe got a post-war version of the New Deal,' avoiding the social and economic unrest that would have held Europe back.

The Marshall Plan laid the groundwork for:

• A stable, post-war Western Europe
• Integration of a reconstructed Germany into the Western economic system
• Germany received $3 billion in Marshall Plan aid

Soviet response:

The USSR formed COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) in 1949, effectively tying all Eastern European trade to the Soviet Union.

The Berlin Blockade and Airlift

The crisis (1948-49)

Stalin grew increasingly concerned about Western plans to unite their occupation zones in Germany. When Britain, France, and the United States began merging their zones in 1948, Stalin feared this was a prelude to a united Western Germany that would become the cornerstone of American influence in Europe.

Unable to prevent Western German unification, Stalin decided to force the Western allies out of West Berlin by blockading the city on 24 June 1948.

Allied response: the Berlin Airlift

The Western allies refused to abandon West Berlin or resort to military confrontation. Instead, they devised an imaginative solution: airlifting all necessary supplies into the city.

Consequences of the Berlin Blockade

The Berlin Blockade had far-reaching consequences that solidified the division of Europe and established the military and political structures that would define the Cold War.

Formation of NATO (4 April 1949)

The United States joined with Britain, France, Canada, and several West European countries to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) - a defensive military alliance designed to protect Western Europe from Soviet expansionism.

President Truman stated: "By this treaty, we are not only seeking to establish freedom from aggression and from the use of force in the North Atlantic community, but we are also actively striving to promote and preserve peace throughout the world."

The Soviet Union responded in 1955 by creating the Warsaw Pact, its own security alliance with Eastern European communist states.

Division of Germany formalised

In September 1949:

• Western Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) was created by joining the British, French, and American zones
• The Soviets responded by creating the German Democratic Republic (GDR) - East Germany
• Berlin remained divided between East and West, with West Berlin becoming part of West Germany

This division would last until 1990.

Communist victory in China (1949)

China's role in World War II

During WWII, President Roosevelt insisted China be included in discussions about the post-war world. He envisioned China as one of the 'four policemen' (USA, USSR, Britain, China) who would maintain world peace. This vision led to China becoming one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council with veto power.

At the time, China was ruled by Chiang Kai-shek and his Nationalist Party.

The Chinese Civil War

After Japan's surrender in 1945, China plunged into civil war between:

• Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai-shek (supported by the USA)
• Communist revolutionary forces led by Mao Zedong

Communist victory (October 1949)

After four years of civil war, the Communists emerged victorious. However:

• The US Navy rescued Chiang Kai-shek and his army, transferring them to Taiwan
• Chiang re-established his Nationalist government on Taiwan, calling it the Republic of China (ROC)
• Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) on the mainland

The UN representation dispute

Mao's Communist government demanded to replace Chiang's ROC in the United Nations, including the Security Council seat. However, the United States:

• Used its majority in the General Assembly (59 members in 1949, most voting with the USA)
• Threatened to use its veto in the Security Council
• Successfully kept Communist China out of the UN

The Korean War (1950-53)

Background and outbreak

Korea had been divided at the 38th parallel since the end of WWII:

• North Korea: occupied by Soviet forces, communist government established
• South Korea: occupied by US forces, pro-Western government established

On 24 June 1950, communist North Korea invaded South Korea.

UN response

UN Secretary-General believed this blatant aggression must be opposed to avoid the UN suffering the same fate as the League of Nations.

Course of the war

Initial North Korean success:

North Korea's army of over 400,000 troops swept down the peninsula, forcing US and South Korean forces back to the south-eastern corner at Pusan.

MacArthur's counter-attack (September 1950):

MacArthur landed 70,000 US troops at Inchon, near Seoul, catching North Korean forces by surprise. Within two weeks, UN forces had:

• Recaptured Seoul
• Joined forces advancing from Pusan
• Cut off about half the North Korean invasion force
• Regained all of South Korea up to the 38th parallel by 1 October

Chinese intervention (30 November 1950):

Over 260,000 Chinese troops crossed the Yalu River and attacked UN forces. Gradually, UN forces retreated to the 38th parallel, where they determined to hold.

Armistice (27 July 1953):

After two more years of fighting and negotiation, an armistice was finally signed - but no peace treaty was ever concluded.

The Demilitarised Zone (DMZ)

A four-kilometre-wide, 250-kilometre-long no-man's land was established between North and South Korea. The ceasefire village of Panmunjom was founded where the armistice was signed.

Current situation:

• North Korea maintains approximately 1.2 million soldiers (world's fifth-largest fighting force)
• Two-thirds stationed within 60 miles of the DMZ
• 28,500 US soldiers remain stationed in South Korea
• The Korean War has never officially ended
• Recent disputes between North Korea and the US are a legacy of the Cold War

Nuclear considerations during the Korean War

The Korean War saw both superpowers consider using nuclear weapons, demonstrating how close the world came to nuclear conflict during Cold War crises.

Eisenhower's approach (1953):

• Became president on 20 January 1953, inheriting the Korean War
• Frustrated by dragged-out negotiations
• Stated 'the taboo which surrounds the use of atomic weapons would have to be destroyed'
• Let communist adversaries know he was more willing to use atomic bombs than Truman
• Vice President Nixon believed this threat helped end the war

Key developments summarised

The formation of rival blocs

By 1949-1950, the world had divided into two clear camps:

Western Bloc:

• Led by the United States
• NATO alliance (1949)
• Marshall Plan economic cooperation
• Capitalist, democratic systems

Eastern Bloc:

• Led by the Soviet Union
• Warsaw Pact (1955)
• COMECON economic cooperation
• Communist, totalitarian systems

Soviet control of Eastern Europe

Stalin gradually imposed communist governments on Eastern European countries:

• 1946: Bulgaria and Albania
• 1947: Poland and Romania
• 1948: Czechoslovakia
• 1949: Hungary

Initially, coalition governments were allowed with communists in key positions. Gradually, Soviet agents excluded non-communists, bringing these governments under complete Soviet control.

Ideological rivalry

While geopolitical and security concerns drove much of the conflict, ideological rivalry between capitalism and communism was also significant:

Capitalism (USA and allies):

• Free market economics
• Democratic governance
• Individual liberties
• Private property

Communism (USSR and allies):

• State-controlled economy
• One-party rule
• Collective good over individual rights
• State ownership

Exam preparation

Important dates to remember

• 1943: Quebec/Hyde Park meetings; Teheran Conference
• February 1945: Yalta Conference
• July 1945: Potsdam Conference
• August 1945: Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• February 1946: Stalin's Bolshoi Speech; Kennan's Long Telegram
• March 1946: Churchill's Iron Curtain Speech
• June 1946: Baruch Plan presented to UN
• 1947: Truman Doctrine; Marshall Plan announced
• June 1948 - May 1949: Berlin Blockade and Airlift
• April 1949: NATO formed
• September 1949: USSR tests atomic bomb
• October 1949: Communist victory in China
• June 1950: Korean War begins
• July 1953: Korean War armistice signed

Causes of the Cold War: key factors

1. Breakdown of wartime alliance:

• Different visions for post-war world
• Competing security interests
• Mutual distrust

2. The atomic bomb issue:

• American secrecy about the Manhattan Project
• Exclusion of USSR from atomic discussions
• Use of atomic bombs against Japan
• Stalin's determination to develop Soviet atomic weapons
• Failure of Baruch Plan for international control

3. Ideological differences:

• Capitalism vs communism
• Democracy vs totalitarianism
• However, ideology may not have been the primary cause - security concerns were paramount

4. Geopolitical competition:

• Soviet control of Eastern Europe
• American containment policy
• Formation of rival alliance systems (NATO vs Warsaw Pact)
• Division of Germany and Berlin

5. Missed opportunities:

• Could Roosevelt and Truman have been more open about atomic weapons?
• Should the Baruch Plan have been pursued more vigorously?
• Did American actions push Stalin towards greater defensiveness?

Historiographical debates

Was the Cold War inevitable?

Essay planning tips

For questions on "Why did the Cold War begin?":

1. Introduction: Define the Cold War and state your argument about which factors were most important
2. Wartime alliance breakdown:
   • Discuss conferences (Yalta, Potsdam)
   • Show how cooperation deteriorated
   • Highlight competing visions for post-war world
3. Atomic bomb issue:
   • Explain secrecy and Stalin's reaction
   • Discuss Baruch Plan failure
   • Analyse impact on mutual trust
4. Ideological and geopolitical factors:
   • Soviet control of Eastern Europe
   • Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan
   • Formation of rival blocs
5. Crystallising events:
   • Berlin Blockade
   • Communist victory in China
   • Korean War
6. Conclusion: Weigh the relative importance of different factors and make a judgment about whether the Cold War could have been avoided