1918: Allied Victory (HSC SSCE Modern History): Revision Notes

1918: Allied Victory

The Allied situation at the beginning of 1918

At the start of 1918, Allied victory was far from certain. Russia had withdrawn from the war following the Bolshevik Revolution, and was about to sign a harsh peace treaty with Germany. This meant Germany could transfer up to a million soldiers from the Eastern Front to the Western Front.

Meanwhile, American forces were arriving in France very slowly. Although the rate of arrival was increasing, the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) was not yet ready for combat. General Pershing refused to let his troops fight under Allied command, insisting on waiting until enough American soldiers had arrived to form a complete American army. The AEF therefore spent its time training and holding quiet sections of the front line.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and German offensive plans

In March 1918, Germany and Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. This was an extremely harsh agreement that the Bolshevik government had no choice but to accept. The treaty meant Germany could now transfer at least a million troops to the Western Front.

General Ludendorff planned a massive spring offensive. His aim was to split the Allied lines, separating the French and British armies, and then systematically destroy them before the American army became too strong.

Historical debate: Was Brest-Litovsk a mistake?

President Wilson's Fourteen Points speech, 8 January 1918

Following the Bolshevik Revolution, Allied leaders worried they were losing the propaganda war with their own populations. Many people suspected their governments of prolonging the war for imperialistic reasons. The situation worsened in November 1917 when the Bolsheviks released secret treaties from the Tsar's files. These documents, published in newspapers worldwide, revealed all the secret agreements the Allied countries had made with each other.

To counter this, British Prime Minister Lloyd George gave a speech at Caxton Hall on 5 January, arguing that Allied war aims were clear and just. This was followed on 8 January by President Wilson's Fourteen Points speech. Wilson spoke against secret diplomacy and called for a just peace based on territorial adjustments and the creation of a League of Nations.

The Fourteen Points

1. No secret treaties
2. Freedom of the seas
3. Free trade with no economic barriers between countries
4. Reduction of armaments by all countries
5. Colonies to have a say in their future
6. German troops to leave Russia
7. Independence for Belgium
8. France to regain territory including Alsace-Lorraine
9. Italy's borders to be redrawn based on nationality
10. Self-determination for national groups of Austria-Hungary
11. Self-determination for national groups in the Balkans
12. Self-determination for national groups in the Ottoman Empire
13. Poland to be an independent state
14. A League of Nations should be established to guarantee peace

Ludendorff's Spring Offensive, March 1918

On 21 March 1918, Germany launched its Spring Offensive. The goal was to drive a wedge through the Western Front, divide the French from the British, and push the British into the sea.

For the first time in four and a half years, the stalemate was broken and the conflict became a war of movement. Ludendorff's gamble to defeat the Allied forces before American troops became decisive seemed to be working. German forces swept across no-man's-land and advanced deep into Allied territory. The British and French were forced to retreat.

American forces were now in France, but numbered less than two million - still at least half the planned amount. More significantly, they were not yet fully deployed and had not seen any combat action.

The Battle of Le Hamel, 4 July 1918

On 4 July 1918, a small but significant battle took place at Le Hamel on the Western Front. The battle was led by General John Monash, newly appointed Commander of Australian troops on the Western Front.

Although relatively small, the battle was a resounding success. It was over in just 90 minutes, with Australian forces capturing all their objectives. Finally, the Allies seemed to have found a formula that could break the stalemate.

A key feature was the use of tanks. These British tanks were a vast improvement on earlier prototypes, being faster and more manoeuvrable. Monash assigned groups of infantry to each tank and had them train together.

The Battle of Amiens, 8-11 August 1918

On 8 August 1918, the Allies launched an attack at Amiens. The battle began with highly effective British artillery but was spearheaded by Australian and Canadian forces. The main feature was the mass use of tanks.

After three days of battle, Allied forces broke through the German line and the Germans were forced to retreat. The Allies had originally planned only to capture and hold a small part of the German line (as at Le Hamel), but instead found the Germans in full retreat and decided to take advantage. This marked the beginning of the Hundred Days Offensive, in which Allied forces relentlessly moved forward as the Germans retreated.

American forces had also joined full-scale fighting at last, though they did not experience great success initially. Allied casualties remained high, but at least they were progressively moving forward.

The Allies smash through the Hindenburg Line, 29 September 1918

Although the Germans had retreated, their withdrawal was orderly. They took up positions in the heavily fortified Hindenburg Line, a massive defensive system featuring concrete fortresses.

However, on 29 September 1918, the Allies broke through the massive concrete fortress at St Quentin and smashed through the Hindenburg Line. The Germans resumed their retreat, though it remained orderly. They were still not beaten.

Up to this point, Germans believed they could hold their now much shorter front line, survive the next few months, and counter-attack with fresh troops in 1919.

The Germans hoped the Allies would accept an early end to the war, because Allied forces had not yet advanced onto German soil. They had merely recaptured what the Germans had taken at the war's beginning. The Germans hoped for a peace based on Wilson's Fourteen Points.

The new German Chancellor requests an armistice

On 3 October 1918, the Kaiser appointed the moderate Prince Max of Baden as Chancellor. Prince Max's first act was to send a note to President Wilson (via Switzerland) requesting peace negotiations based on the Fourteen Points. He then began instituting sweeping democratic reforms that the socialist-led Reichstag majority had been requesting since the Reichstag Resolution of July 1917.

The Allies were not quick to respond. Firstly, the leaders of France, Britain and Italy were annoyed that the armistice request went to President Wilson rather than to them directly. Secondly, they had the German military on the Western Front in retreat, and believed it was only a matter of time before the German Army was finished. The question was how long it would take to thoroughly defeat Germany.

For six weeks, notes passed between Prince Max and President Wilson, while Wilson had to consult Lloyd George and Clemenceau about each proposal. Each time, Wilson was forced to demand harsher conditions for Germany to satisfy the British and French.

Finally, the Allies agreed to an armistice and peace based on Wilson's Fourteen Points, with one condition: the Allied military would conduct the armistice negotiations. The negotiations were led by French General Foch, who imposed harsh conditions.

At 11 am on 11 November 1918, the fighting stopped.

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