Ethics (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes

Ethics

Buddhist ethics form a central part of the tradition, emphasizing the consequences of actions and the intentions behind them. Unlike religions based on divine commands, Buddhism offers guidelines to help practitioners develop wisdom and move toward enlightenment. This section explores how Buddhist ethical principles apply to contemporary moral issues.

Foundations of Buddhist ethics

Buddhist ethics are built on several key principles that guide moral decision-making. Rather than focusing on absolute rules of right and wrong, Buddhism emphasizes the concept of skilful versus unskilful actions. Skilful actions lead toward enlightenment and reduce suffering, while unskilful actions create negative karma and increase suffering.

Four key aspects of Buddhist ethics

When determining the ethical nature of an action, Buddhists consider four important aspects:

Intention: The motivation behind an action is paramount. Buddhists emphasize the intention of the actor and whether there is an intention to do no harm. This reflects the understanding that actions driven by compassion and wisdom are more likely to be skilful.

Consequences: Buddhism examines the impact of actions on both the person acting and those affected by the action. This relates directly to the concept of karma, where actions create consequences that affect the actor's future lives and spiritual progress.

Context: Buddhist ethics are pragmatic and situational. The specific circumstances surrounding an action matter when evaluating its ethical nature. This flexibility allows for nuanced moral reasoning.

Self-cultivation: The focus is on whether actions are skilful or unskilful in terms of leading toward self-liberation and enlightenment. Actions that develop wisdom and compassion are considered skilful, while those that increase attachment and ignorance are unskilful.

Three general statements underlying Buddhist ethics

Buddhist ethics can be summarized in three fundamental statements:

1. Do what is good (skilful)
2. Avoid what is evil (unskilful)
3. Practise so that the mind is clear

These statements guide Buddhists in making ethical decisions across all areas of life. The emphasis on clarity of mind connects ethical behavior to the broader goal of achieving enlightenment.

The role of Buddhist teachings in ethics

Three core Buddhist teachings are particularly significant in considering ethical issues:

The Five Precepts: These basic moral guidelines include abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxication. While originally stated in negative terms, they can be understood positively as cultivating compassion, generosity, contentment, truthfulness, and mindfulness.

The Noble Eightfold Path: This path outlines the way to end suffering and includes right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. The "middle way" described in this path encourages balance and avoiding extremes.

The Four Noble Truths: These truths about suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the path to end it provide a framework for understanding why ethical behavior matters. Reducing suffering is a central goal of Buddhist ethics.

Understanding personhood and ethics

A crucial philosophical question in Buddhist ethics concerns the concept of self. Buddhism teaches that the self is an illusion (the doctrine of anatta or no-self). This raises an interesting ethical question: if there is no permanent self, why does ethical behavior matter?

The Buddhist response is that while the permanent, unchanging self is an illusion, the process of consciousness continues through rebirth, and actions create karmic consequences that affect future states of existence. Therefore, ethical behavior remains essential for reducing suffering and achieving liberation.

The role of the Sangha

The Buddhist community (Sangha) plays an important role in guiding ethical decisions. In many cases, the wisdom of the community is considered more important than rigid interpretation of sacred texts. This reflects Buddhism's practical approach to ethics, where experienced practitioners can offer guidance based on deep understanding of Buddhist principles and specific circumstances.

Bioethics

Bioethics deals with ethical questions arising from medical and biological advances. Buddhist approaches to bioethical issues focus on relieving suffering and considering the consequences of actions. Unlike religions that invoke divine commands, Buddhism does not concern itself with "playing God." Instead, Buddhists evaluate bioethical issues through the lens of compassion, harm reduction, and the concept of sentient life.

Beginning of life issues

Buddhist perspectives on issues involving the beginning of life center on the question of consciousness and sentience.

Abortion: The central question for Buddhists regarding abortion is whether the fetus has consciousness. If it does, then abortion breaches the first precept against killing a sentient being. Many Buddhists believe life (and consciousness) begins at conception, though others place it at birth. The Buddha himself opposed abortion in early Buddhist writings, and many Buddhists view it as the taking of life with serious karmic consequences for those involved.

However, Buddhist ethics allow for consideration of circumstances. Some Buddhists accept that abortion might be a compassionate act in certain situations, such as saving the life of the mother. Even when performed out of compassion, there are still karmic consequences to consider. The issue of suffering resulting from either the abortion or the birth must be carefully weighed.

Cloning: Buddhist views on cloning are complex and varied. Some Buddhists argue that the first precept must be applied strictly, meaning an embryo (as a life) cannot be harmed. This would prohibit therapeutic cloning for research purposes. Others distinguish between therapeutic cloning (for medical research) and reproductive cloning (to produce offspring).

The key question often revolves around when consciousness begins, which many Buddhists associate with the emergence of the brain. This understanding may be used to determine when life has truly begun and therefore when the first precept applies.

Reproductive cloning raises questions about intention. If cloning reduces suffering and promotes life, it may be acceptable. However, concerns arise about the loss of embryos and fetuses during the cloning process, which involves taking potential life. There is considerable debate within the Buddhist community about these issues.

Organ donation: Organ donation appears consistent with Buddhist values of extending life, demonstrating generosity, and recognizing the interconnectedness of all life. It can be seen as a compassionate act that helps others.

However, a significant concern arises from the Buddhist practice of leaving a corpse untouched and unharmed for several hours after death. In some forms of Mahayana Buddhism, rebirth is thought to occur three days after death, which conflicts with the need to harvest organs as soon as possible after death to ensure viability.

End of life issues

Buddhist perspectives on end-of-life care reflect the tradition's concern with suffering and the natural process of death.

Euthanasia: Many Buddhists support the hospice movement and palliative care as alternatives to euthanasia. This approach aligns with the precept against taking life. Euthanasia is often seen as interfering with the natural process of life and death.

Buddhists recognize that suffering is a consequence of actions in previous lives (karma). From this perspective, one should not destroy a sentient being to end suffering. However, there is ongoing debate about this issue, particularly concerning the use of modern technology to artificially prolong life. When does medical intervention to extend life become an unnatural interference with the dying process?

While Buddhism teaches that sentient life should not be killed, there is recognition that dying can be a peaceful and even beautiful experience when approached mindfully. The key is that the person must feel comfortable at the time of their death. The variety of Buddhist perspectives means that different Buddhists may reach different conclusions about end-of-life care based on their understanding of these principles.

Environmental ethics

Buddhist environmental ethics stem from the tradition's emphasis on harmony, balance, and the interconnectedness of all life. Trees hold particular significance in Buddhism because the Buddha achieved enlightenment while meditating under a bodhi tree.

Foundations of Buddhist environmentalism

Interdependence and harmony: Buddhists seek to maintain harmony in the world, including the physical environment. The concept of interdependence (or balance) is central. All species depend on each other, and disrupting this balance creates suffering. This concern for balance is not based on belief in a creator god but rather on the practical understanding that environmental health affects all beings.

The middle way: The Noble Eightfold Path's teaching about the middle way applies to environmental issues. Just as Buddhists avoid extremes in personal life, they should avoid extremes in their relationship with the environment. Exploitation represents one harmful extreme that creates imbalance in the world.

Compassion for nature: Buddhist ethics of compassion extend to the natural world. The environment should be treated with the same careful consideration of implications that Buddhists apply to human relationships. Abusing and exploiting nature results in serious consequences and destroys balance.

Application of the Five Precepts to environmental issues

The Five Precepts can be interpreted as having environmental implications:

First precept (not killing): This can refer not only to killing animals for food but also to eroding grazing land and destroying habitats. Many Buddhists see this precept as making a strong case for vegetarianism.

Second precept (not taking what is not given): This can be interpreted as prohibiting the disregard of the environment and the taking of resources that do not belong to humans alone.

Buddhist environmental wisdom

The Buddha's teachings emphasize care for all welfare. As recorded in the Anguttara Nikaya:

"He who has understanding and great wisdom does not think of harming himself or another, nor of harming both alike. He rather thinks of his own welfare, of that of others, of that of both, and of the welfare of the whole world."

This holistic perspective extends to both animate and inanimate life. The Buddha's major accomplishments, including achieving enlightenment, occurred under trees. This reverence for nature has led Buddhists to be at the forefront of protests against deforestation and efforts to preserve forests.

Historical Buddhist environmental practices

Environmental concern has been part of Buddhism since ancient times. King Asoka, one of Buddhism's most important early patrons, instituted environmental protections in his kingdom, including:

• Cultivation of plants for medicinal use
• Planting of vegetation
• Digging of wells

These actions demonstrate care for all that the environment holds. Buddhist tradition suggests that nature can even assist practitioners in finding enlightenment, as it provides an ideal setting for meditation and promotes connectedness, harmony, and balance.

Modern Buddhist environmental initiatives

Buddhist concern for nature is expressed in various ways:

Sacred spaces: Peaceful shrines in natural settings, elaborate temples like Borobudur (Indonesia), Angkor Wat (Cambodia), and Japanese temples demonstrate reverence for the environment. Modern retreat centers often feature carefully designed gardens, such as the award-winning gardens at Nan Tien Temple in New South Wales.

Environmental activism: Buddhists have been prominent in environmental protection efforts. In Thailand, for example, trees have been "ordained" in attempts to prevent them from being cut down, combining religious respect with environmental activism.

Buddhist organizations: Several Buddhist groups focus on environmental issues:

• The Buddhist Insight Network created the Buddhist Environmental Initiative to help preserve the environment through cultivating wisdom, living green, and using resources responsibly
• The Sydney Buddhist Centre offers courses on environmental concerns and maintains an environmental policy focused on reducing environmental impact and recycling
• FoodFaith, an initiative of the Buddhist Tzu Chi Foundation, promotes projects like the B&B Highway (creating pollinator rest stops) and PlantingSeeds community gardens

These initiatives demonstrate how traditional Buddhist values of compassion and interconnectedness translate into practical environmental action in the modern world.

Sexual ethics

Buddhist sexual ethics emphasize alleviating suffering and following the middle way. The third of the Five Precepts instructs adherents to "abstain from engaging in sexual misconduct," though the definition of "sexual misconduct" is debated within Buddhism.

General principles of sexual ethics

Several key principles guide Buddhist thinking about sexuality:

No divine commands: There is no divine imperative in Buddhist sexual ethics, only guidelines to develop wisdom. This makes Buddhist sexual ethics more flexible and context-dependent than those of theistic religions.

Karma and consequences: The consequences of actions (karma) are more important than merely satisfying desire. Buddhists must carefully consider their urges, the potential for harm, and whether actions are skilful or unskilful.

Connection to all Five Precepts: While the third precept explicitly addresses sexual misconduct, satisfying sexual desires can potentially violate all five precepts. For example, sexual desire might lead to lying, harm, or theft.

Sexual activity and contentment: Buddhism teaches that sexual activity is not the primary cause of contentment. As stated in the Sutta Nipata:

"If one, longing for sexual pleasure, achieves it ... for that one the pleasures diminish, he is shattered."

Practitioners must carefully examine their motivations and determine what is most skilful in terms of their spiritual development.

Premarital and extramarital sex

Buddhist perspectives on premarital and extramarital sex are complex and influenced by both Buddhist teachings and cultural contexts.

The Buddha's example: Before enlightenment, Prince Siddhartha was married to Yasodhara and had a son, Rahula. Only after fulfilling his duty as a royal prince by producing an heir did he leave to seek enlightenment. This suggests that while enlightenment is the ultimate goal, marriage and family life are also important parts of earthly existence for laypeople.

After enlightenment, the Buddha emphasized a life beyond worldly concerns, including sex, marriage, and children. The Vinaya (monastic rules) clearly establishes that monks and nuns should move beyond sexual expression to concentrate on developing the mind.

Marriage in Buddhism: Marriage is important in Buddhism but is understood as a civil ceremony, not a religious or sacramental event. Early Buddhist texts describe various types of marriages—some based on love, others on financial arrangements; some permanent, others temporary. The Buddha taught that a wife is a man's best friend and that union without love causes suffering.

Buddhism allows for flexible attitudes regarding marriage, acknowledging that marriage can be positive but may also pose challenges. Historical Buddhist texts indicate acceptance of various marriage structures, including polygyny (one husband with multiple wives) and polyandry (one wife with multiple husbands).

Buddhist principles regarding premarital sex: The emphasis in Buddhism remains on love and mutual respect. Any relationship that causes suffering to either partner should be avoided. As long as both parties maintain Buddhist virtues of honesty, generosity, and loving kindness—that is, the relationship is non-violent and consensual—most sexual relationships are considered acceptable.

Premarital sex might be considered contrary to the third precept in more traditional Buddhist societies, but it is generally viewed as a marginal issue. The ideal state for those seriously pursuing enlightenment remains celibacy, but marriage and family life are recognized as appropriate for laypeople.

Homosexuality

Buddhist perspectives on homosexuality vary considerably across different cultures and traditions.

Basic Buddhist principles: Buddhism does not specifically condemn homosexuality. The Dalai Lama has stated that "His Holiness opposes violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation." Buddhist belief in rebirth means that individuals are thought to have existed in many previous lives as both men and women, making sexuality more fluid than in traditions emphasizing fixed gender identities.

The Vinaya texts comprehensively forbid all forms of sexual activity for monks and nuns, without distinguishing between heterosexual and homosexual acts. For laypeople, Buddhism emphasizes treating all humans with respect and kindness, which does not inherently forbid homosexual relationships.

Sexual misconduct precept: The third precept warning against sexual misconduct is generally interpreted as referring to sexual harassment or coercive sex, not to specific types of consensual relationships. Most Buddhist interpretations treat homosexuality no differently from heterosexuality—both are acceptable for laypeople as long as they uphold values of loving kindness, honesty, and generosity.

Cultural variations: Different Buddhist cultures have varying attitudes:

• Japan: Japanese Buddhism has never condemned homosexuality. Some texts even connect homosexuality positively with Buddhism, such as the Chigo Kannon engi, which describes the Bodhisattva Kannon manifesting as a beautiful male novice.
• Thailand: Thai Buddhists, adhering to strong beliefs in karma, sometimes perceive homosexuality as punishment for misdeeds in a past life, leading to less tolerance.
• Tibet: The Dalai Lama advocates respect and compassion for all humans, including homosexuals. He has suggested that homosexual relations, while not appropriate for monks and nuns, could be mutually loving and harmless. However, Tibetan lay society generally views homosexuality negatively. An interesting exception is the ldab ldobs monks, who engage in homosexual behavior while doing good works—they are considered "bad monks" for their sexual behavior but not the worst kind because they are honest about it.

Celibacy

Celibacy represents the normative ideal in Buddhism, particularly for monks and nuns.

Renunciation of worldly attachments: The Sangha is a celibate community for both males and females. Renouncing worldly attachments, including sexual relationships, is considered important or even necessary for achieving enlightenment. Celibacy enables practitioners to maintain focus without the distractions and attachments of family life.

Moving beyond desire: Sexual intercourse represents strong attachment to earthly pleasures and uses energy that could be directed toward spiritual practices and the quest for enlightenment. The main obstacle to overcome in progressing toward nirvana is the desire for sense pleasures, of which sexuality is among the strongest.

Ideal for spiritual development: While marriage and family life are accepted as appropriate for laypeople, celibacy throughout life represents the most perfect state for those seriously pursuing enlightenment. This reflects the understanding that the path to liberation requires transcending desires that bind individuals to the cycle of rebirth.

Gender roles and discrimination

Buddhist teachings on gender roles have significant implications for religious practice and societal status, though there is often a gap between ideals and reality.

Theoretical equality: Buddhism strives to treat men and women equally at a religious level. The Buddha agreed that women could become arhats (enlightened beings), and the Pali Canon contains numerous verses written by female arhats. Some women even began attaining enlightenment while still in unhappy marriages.

Practical discrimination: Despite theoretical equality, gender discrimination exists in Buddhist practice. There are more Vinaya rules for nuns than for monks—227 rules for nuns versus 250 for monks in some traditions. Some of these additional rules reflect ancient Indian social attitudes, such as the idea that it is harder for women to beg for alms unaccompanied than for men.

Variations across traditions:

• Theravada: During the twentieth century, women in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand often found it easier to become nuns in the Mahayana tradition and then return home, due to lack of support for nunneries in their own countries.
• Mahayana: Chinese Buddhism focuses on several female Bodhisattvas, most notably Guanyin. Interestingly, Guanyin is identified in early Buddhist scriptures as Avalokiteshvara, a male Bodhisattva, but transformed into a female figure in Chinese Buddhism.
• Australian Buddhism: The Nan Tien Temple near Wollongong is run by nuns from the Chinese Mahayana organization Fo Guang Shan, demonstrating modern examples of female Buddhist leadership.

Cultural influences: Gender discrimination in Buddhism often reflects the social norms of cultures where Buddhism developed. In China, for example, Confucian attitudes suggesting women have "slave-like mentality" influenced how Buddhist nunneries were organized and located. However, Buddhism (like Taoism) also offered women an escape route from male-dominated society.

Modern reform: Contemporary Buddhist women like Tenzin Palmo work to address gender discrimination and create opportunities for women to develop their spiritual potential fully (see case study below).

Case study: Tenzin Palmo

Tenzin Palmo's life demonstrates both the challenges women face in Buddhism and the possibilities for reform.

Early life and training: Born in England, Tenzin Palmo traveled to India in the 1960s where she met her guru, the Eighth Khamtrul Rinpoche. She was ordained as a Tibetan Buddhist nun and studied at his monastery for six years. Following her guru's suggestion to develop more intense meditation, she moved to a small monastery in the Himalayas for another six years, then retreated to a cave where she meditated, mainly alone, for 12 years.

Establishing a nunnery: After working in Europe to spread Buddhist teachings, Tenzin Palmo received appeals from Tibetans asking her to start a nunnery and re-establish traditions for learned Buddhist women that were disrupted when China invaded Tibet in 1950. She committed to this work and established Dongyu Gatsal Ling (meaning "Delightful Grove of the True Lineage") Nunnery at Tashi Jong in northern India.

Vision and goals: The nunnery combines traditional Buddhist values with modern Western assumptions:

• Emphasis on allowing women to develop their intellectual and spiritual talents
• Contrast with other Tibetan Buddhist institutions where women have not been given such prominence
• Plans for a women's refuge, extending beyond narrow monastic concerns
• Revival of the Togdenma tradition of female yogis or teachers, which was destroyed by the Chinese

Modern leadership: Tenzin Palmo spends nine months of the year at the nunnery and three months traveling to raise funds. She serves as current president of Sakyadhita International, an organization formed in 1987 under the Dalai Lama's patronage that brings together Buddhist nuns and laywomen every two years to discuss issues affecting women and society. The 16th conference in 2019 in the Blue Mountains, Australia, gathered over 800 Buddhist nuns and laywomen from 29 countries and created the Alliance for Buddhist Ethics.